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Slave Codes of the 1600s
Slave Codes
Knowledge of the written word was withheld from certain members of society, women and slaves, for example. Slave Codes made it illegal for slaves to learn how to read and write and were "enacted to dispel fears of uprisings that could be brought on by literacy acquisition and applications" (Willis, 1997, p. 389). -
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Methods during period of Religious Doctrine
The focus of early reading instruction was more on content than on method. "Method was considered incidentally as a tool in furthering the fundamental aim of acquainting children with the content needed in their early religious life and equipping them to read the Bible in meeting the needs of their later religious life" (Smith, 2002, p. 31). -
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Purpose: Reading instruction as a means to support religious doctrine
England's shift to Protestantism ushered in a new age of religious thought, placing the role of the individual as "directly responsible to God for his own salvation" (Smith, 2002, p. 9). It was important for individuals to read the Bible, and that reading instruction in schools meet that desired goal. Early settlers carried this "religious motive" across the Atlantic with them, and it permeated and directed "the instruction in their schools" (Smith, 2002, p. 11). -
Massachusetts "Old Deluder" Law
Old Deluder Satan Law
Massachusetts set the pace for "policies of early American schools" and this law was enacted to provide a teacher for every commonwealth with over 50 householders. The main purpose was so that children could be taught to read for themselves, thus escaping "false glosses of saint-seeming deceivers" (Smith, 2002, p. 12). -
New Discovery of the Old Art of Teaching School is published
Author Charles A. Hoole expresses the goal of English schools:
"Now because all our teaching is but mere trifling unless withal we be careful to insruct children in the grounds of true religion, let them be sure to get the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, and the Ten Commandments" (7:109; in Smith, 2002, pp 10-11). -
The Declaration of Independence
The assertion of the colonies' independence caused a shift in reading instruction aims. Reading content now had several new functions to perform: it was expected to purify the American language, to develop loyalty to the new nation, its traditions and institutions, its occupations and resources; and to inculcate the high ideas of virtue and moral behavior which were considered so necessary a part of the general program of building good citizenship" (Smith, 2002, p. 34). -
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Purpose: Nationalism-setting the standard for a new country of readers
Around the time of America's Revolution, secular ideals began to replace the spiritual motives that permeated the reading instruction of the colonies. The struggle for religious freedom was superceded by "the new struggle for political freedom and the business of developing a young nation, strong, unified, and harmonious" (Smith, 2002, p. 33). -
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Methods during period of Nationalism
Spelling remains the "foundation method for inducting children into the mysteries of reading" although it is not the most engaging for the students (Smith, 2002, p. 62). Fluency and oral reading gain steam as the predominant methods of reading instruction. Among other things, the expectation of reading instruction included the aim to "purfiy the American language" (Smith, 2002, p. 34). -
The Columbian Orator is published
During this time period, reading was synonymous with oral reading and much time was spent on students' oratory skills. The Columbian Orator is an example of a popular text, the goal of which was to "cultivate [oratory's] rudiments, and diffuse its spirit among the Youth of America" (Smith, 2002, p. 37). -
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Purpose: Promoting Intelligent Citizenship and Culture
This period presents evidence that shows a shift in focus on students' interests and experiences as well as an intelligent citizenry. To implement intelligent citizenship "reading educators turned their attention to new sources for principles that would broaden the content of readers intellectually and new methods that might make reading instruction more effective" (Smith, 2002, p. 71). -
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Methods during period for Promotion of Intelligent Citizenship and Culture
Horace Mann and Pestalozzian principles become major influences during this period. Smith (2002) writes that there is a connection between Pestalozzi's principles and "such innovations in reading as the introduction of the word method, the appearance of many pictures in primary readers, and the inclusion of material dealing with objects and experiences familiar to children" (p. 77). -
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Methods during Period of Scientific Emphasis
The emphasis on scientific and objective measurement led to a complete change in reading instruction. The advent of standardized testing urged test makers to devise a way to measure reading skills. Test makers marked "speed and comprehension in silent reading...as highly important," and it is no coincidence that those skills were also, "at the same time, testable features of the reading process" (Smith, 2002, p. 152). -
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Purpose: Scientific research changes reading instruction
This era is characterized by the influence of scientific methods in education as a whole, but reading instruction was one of the last subjects to be affected. The "advent of instruments of measurement" allowed researchers and psychologists to glean data about reading instruction and its effectiveness that met the standards of the scientific community (Smith, 2002, p. 148). -
US Army literacy testing
The results of these literacy tests "revealed a wide gap in literacy attainment, as measured by the test" between native-born Whites and immigrants to America (Willis, 1997, p 390). The interpretation was flawed, but nonetheless, was taken as scientific proof "that there were racial, biological, and cultural differences in intelligence with Whites of norther European descent the most intelligent" (Willis, 1997, p. 390). -
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Purpose: Intensive Research and Application
This period continued the research and investigation of the previous one, and is characterized by "the application of broader objectives, and the teaching of reading in activity programs" (Smith, 2002, p. 186). More attention was paid to "the need of...varied materials for children to read, and for the use of methods of instruction designed to develop many different reading habits and abilities" (Smith, 2002, p. 190). -
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Methods during Period of Intensive research and application
Placing students in flexible reading groups based on their indiviudal needs became an acceptable method of instruction. The Activity Movement took hold in the early 1930s drawing upon the experiences of the individual and group in the context of the classroom environment, which "involves investigating, questioning, planning, performing, evaluating, appreciating, achieveing, and enjoying" (Smith, 2002, p. 228). -
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Purpose: Period of International Conflict
Nationalism is back to the foreront as the World Wars cause Americans to rethink their place within global economy and politics. The Activity Movement dies out as the public are instructed to reason their "way through a perplexing labyrinth of communication...to recognize validity, to detect speciousness, to deal sagaciously with propaganda" (Smith, 2002, p. 249). The "first menace to reading," the radio, spurred educators into action, devising ways to combat this distraction. -
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Methods during the Period of International Conflict
The relatedness of reading to the other language arts was explored and skills such as "the use of context clues and strutural analysis appeared for the first time as techniques that should be taught to children" (Smith, 2002, p. 269). Flexible grouping based on students' needs was introduced as a method of reading instruction. -
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Pupose: The Period of Expanding Knowledge and Technological Revolution
Technological advancements allowed for knowledge to be spread widely and rapidly throughout the world, and Americans felt the need to keep pace or lose out. Originating in the previous period, "the three influences of expanding knowledge, technological revolution, and national concern continued to affect reading instruction" during this time period (Smith, 2002, p. 289). -
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Methods during the Period of Expanding Knowledge and Technological Revolution
The government was concerned with the state of the nation (joblessness, poverty, growing unskilled labor force) and saw education, particularly reading instruction, as a solution. Other methods such as the linguist approach, individualized instruction, and ethnic awareness were employed to make the needed changes in reading instruction. -
The Russians launch Sputnik, the first satellite
Wikipedia entry on Sputnik
The Russians entrance into the Space Race first, spurred on Americans to "produce more and more and to do it faster and faster" (Smith, 2002, p. 290). Reading instruction became an area that gained particular interest with many "seeking new methods and...new materials that they hoped would produce faster and better results in learning to read" (Smith, 2002, p. 291). -
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Purpose: Period of Understanding Reading through Various Scholarly Lenses
Reading was "embraced by scholars from many different fields of inquiry" such as socio and psycho linguists, cognitive psychologists, and literary theorists (Pearson, 2002, p. 429). The result is a greater awareness of the inherent contextuality of reading. Reading is embedded in social, economic, cultural, and political contexts. -
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Methods during Period of Understanding Reading Through Various Scholarly Lenses
Literature Based Reading and Process Writing paved the way for Whole Language to take center stage as a method of reading instruction. Integrated instruction of the previous period (reading and language arts) is expanded to now include reading and the other content areas. -
Lyndon Johnson passes the Elementary and Secondary Education Act
LBJ Timeline-ESEA
ESEA, "the first general aid-to-education program ever adopted by Congress and it provided programs to help educate disadvantaged children in city slums and rural areas" (LBJ Library and Museum). -
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Pupose: Period of producing Measurable Results
During the mid 90s a swing back to "replicable research" created space for policy-makers to dictate the kinds of educational research and practice taking place (Pearson, 2002, p. 460). -
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Methods during Period of Producing Measurable Results
Phonics instruction became the 'research-based, replicable' method of early reading instruction although there was support as well that a balanced curriculum of phonics as well as "rich experiences with language, environmental print, patterned stories, and Big Books should also be a staple of effective early reading instruction" (Pearson, 2002, p. 462). -
California Assembly Bill 1086 supports phonics
Prohibition of methods other than phonics
Bill 1086 advocates phonics instruction by prohibiting "the use of Goals 2000 money for professional developers who advocated the use of context clues over phonics or...the use of invented spellings in children's writing" (Pearson, 2002, p. 463). -
Legislation enacting "phonics bills"
Hooked on Phonics Works For Me!
Phonics bills are those that mandate "either the use of phonics materials or some sort of teacher training to acquaint teachers" with phonics instruction "had been passed or were pending in 36 states" (Pearson, 2002, p. 463).
