Defining and Demarcating Reading (Dis)ability: Changing Conceptualizations and Policies in Education
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First Report of Congenital Alexia
IN 1896, W. P. Morgan wrote the article "Congential World Blindness," published in the British Medical Journal. His work contains the first report of "congenital alexia," what would later become known as "dyslexia." Similar reports followed, originating in the countries of France, Germany, and England (Smith, 2002, p. 148). -
Introduction of Marion's Monroe's Diagnostic Reading Examination for the Diagnosis of Special Difficulty in Reading
The Diagnostic Reading Examination for the Diagnosis of Special Difficulty in Reading, created by Marion Monroe, serves as a a measurement of many different achievement levels, such a arithmetic computation and spelling, to determine reading difficulty (Dolch, 1933, p. 467). This examination was the first of its kind to measure reading ability and take into account varying factors of educational performance. -
Widespread Use of the Term "Remedial Reading"
Defined by Gray (1940), the term "remedial reading" was "used increasingly to refer to the corrective work undertaken by schools with groups of individuals who are retarded in reading" (p. 502). Gray, the author of the popular Dick and Jane series, became a pioneer in the remedial approach of reading (dis)abilities. Remedial reading was found to have a correlation to reading improvement in schools (Smith, 2002, p. 241). -
Increase in the Appearance of Reading Clinics
In 1942, the term "reading clinic" had become widespread, as the establishment of reading clinics across the country was one of the latest developments associated with the improvement of reading ability (Smith, 2002, p. 283). Following the prevalence of the use of the term "remedial reading" and the practices associated with this notion, an increase in the presence of reading clinics within public schools also occurred during this time. -
Introduction of the Term "Learning Disability"
Kirk and Bateman explored the notion of learning (dis)abilities and defined "learning disability" (LD) as a retardation, disorder, or delayed development in one or more of the processes of speech, language, reading, writing, arithmetic, or other school subjects resulting from a psychological handicap caused by a possible cerebral dysfunction and/or emotional or behavioral disturbances" (1962, p. 73). The diagnosis of an LD is used to determine the best kind of instruction for each child. -
"Exploration into the Problems of the Perceptually Handicapped Child" Conference
A group of parents held a conference in Chicago entitled "Exploration into the Problems of the Perceptually Handicapped Child." In addition to these parents, professionals from various disciplines participated. This group shared a common goal: "the recognition of the dire need for services for their children, services that did not exist" (Learning Disabilities Association of America, "History," par. 1). This conference led to the passing of The Education for All Handicapped Children Act. -
Elementary and Secondary Education Act
The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) was enacted by Congress in 1965 to "improve educational equity for students from lower-income families by providing federal funds to school districts serving poor students" (Education Post, par. 2). ESEA is considered the most far-reaching federal legislation affecting education. Since its passing, ESEA has been reauthorized eight times, most recently in 2015 with the creation of the Every Students Succeeds Act. -
Children with Specific Learning Disabilities Act
With the passing of the Children with Specific Learning Disabilities Act, a working definition of "learning disabilities" was established within the federal law. The focus of this bill was the mandate for remedial education (Learning Disabilities Association of America, par. 5). The inclusion of this definition insured that there was an official, authoritative definition that could not vary among professions and fields--variations that could, in turn, affect funding and remediation practices. -
Education for All Handicapped Children Act
In 1975, Congress enacted the Education for All Handicapped Children Act to "support states and localities in protecting the rights of, meeting the individual needs of, and improving the results for... infants, toddlers, children, and youth with disabilities and their families" (U.S. Department of Education, 2000, par. 4). This act let to the development and implementation of effective programs and services for early intervention, special education, and other related resources. -
Establishment of the National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy (NCSALL)
This center's goals were "to raise awareness among practitioners, policymakers, and researchers about about issues of learning disabilities (LD) in adults, to add to the knowledge base about LD in adults through a research and development effort, and to build capacity among literacy programs to enhance the quality of services provided for adults with LD (Corley & Taymans, 2003). The creation of this center marked the recognition of LD as a lifelong condition instead of a developmental delay. -
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
The Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA), enacted by Congress as an amendment to the Education for All Handicapped Children Act, "governs how states and public agencies provide early intervention, special education, and related services" (U.S. Department of Education, n.d., par. 1). With IDEA's passing, accountability and improved outcomes by requiring that special education teachers be highly qualified were mandated. -
Introduction of the Term "Reading Disorder"
In 2000, the American Medical Association released the DSM-IV. Within this edition, the term "reading disorder" is used to specify individuals in regards to reading achievement, as measured by individually administered standardized tests of reading accuracy or comprehension. This criteria has been replaced with the term "specific learning disorder" (BehaveNet). -
No Child Left Behind Act
In 2002, Congress enacted the most recent update to the Elementary Secondary Education Act of 1965, The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). The NCLB Act "significantly increases the federal role in holding schools responsible for the academic progress of all students" (Education Week, 2015). Under NCLB, schools were required to meet yearly progress goals that eventually had 100 percent of all kids on grade level. Realized to be unrealistic, NCLB was later replaced by the Every Student Succeeds Act. -
Introduction of the Term "Specific Learning Disorder"
Within the DSM-V, the term "specific learning disorder" (SLD) was introduced. SLD is defined as, “learning disorders interfering with the acquisition and use of one or more of the following academic skills: oral language, reading, written language, mathematics" (American Psychiatric Association, 2016, par. 1). With this change, there is no one definitive assessment of diagnosing a specific learning disorder, affecting funding and appropriate intervention for those with reading (dis)abilities. -
Every Student Succeeds Act
Enacted by Congress in 2015, the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), following NCLB, "reauthorizes the 50-year-old Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), the nation’s national education law and longstanding commitment to equal opportunity for all students" (U.S. Department of Education, par. 1). This act further lessens the federal government's role in education policy in regards to annual testing, accountability, and school improvement. States are given power in these regulations.
