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A fundamental document proclaiming liberty, equality, and fraternity. It established rights for men but excluded women, influencing future democratic movements worldwide. -
King Louis XVI convened the Estates General to address France’s financial crisis. The Third Estate later declared itself the National Assembly, sparking revolutionary change. -
The Bastille, symbolizing royal tyranny, was stormed by revolutionaries. This marked the French Revolution’s beginning, spreading radical ideas and challenging the monarchy’s power. -
Olympe de Gouges demanded gender equality, challenging male-dominated rights. Her feminist manifesto led to her execution during the Reign of Terror. -
King Louis XVI was convicted of treason and guillotined. His execution symbolized the monarchy’s fall and intensified revolutionary radicalism. -
Robespierre’s radical government executed thousands via guillotine. Fear and political purges dominated France until his downfall in 1794, ending this brutal revolutionary phase.
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Robespierre and his allies were arrested and executed. This ended the Reign of Terror, shifting France toward moderate rule and diminishing radical Jacobin influence. -
A five-member government struggling with corruption, economic issues, and instability. It was overthrown by Napoleon’s Brumaire coup, paving the way for his rule.
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Napoleon overthrew the Directory, replacing it with the Consulate. This marked the end of the French Revolution and his rise as France’s leader. -
Napoleon ruled as First Consul, stabilizing France through reforms. This period ended with him declaring himself Emperor in 1804, consolidating power.
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Napoleon crowned himself Emperor, expanding France’s dominance through wars. His reign ended with his abdication in 1814 and the failed 1815 comeback.
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Napoleon’s greatest victory, defeating Russian and Austrian forces. His strategic brilliance at Austerlitz solidified France’s dominance in Europe, weakening the Third Coalition. -
European leaders met to make peace after Napoleon's wars. They wanted to keep a balance of power in Europe. 1814-1815 -
He ruled France from 1814 to 1824, except during Napoleon's return in 1815. He tried to mix royal rule with some freedoms from the Revolution. -
After abdicating, Napoleon was exiled to Elba. He later escaped, returned to France, and ruled for 100 days before his final defeat.
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Napoleon’s army was defeated by British and Prussian forces, ending his rule. He was captured and exiled to Saint Helena, never returning. -
Napoleon was sent to remote Saint Helena, spending six years under British supervision until his death in 1821, marking his definitive end.
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Napoleon died in exile on Saint Helena, likely from stomach cancer. His legacy shaped European history, inspiring future military and political leaders. -
He was king from 1824 to 1830 and wanted to restore strong royal power. His unpopular decisions led to the July Revolution, and he fled to England. -
Greece started a war of independence against the Ottoman Empire in 1821. After years of fighting, it became an independent country in 1830, with help from Britain, France, and Russia. -
Brought to power by the July Revolution as the “Citizen King,” Louis Philippe governed under a bourgeois constitutional monarchy that expanded economic growth but restricted political participation to the wealthier classes. Mounting social tensions, economic downturns, and demands for broader suffrage culminated in his overthrow during the 1848 Revolution. 1830-1848 -
In August 1830, Belgium rose up against Dutch rule. It declared independence in October 1830, and became a neutral, independent country. -
Spearheaded by Prussia, the Zollverein was a customs union that dismantled internal tariffs among German states, fostering economic integration, industrial growth, and closer political cooperation. It laid the material foundation for Prussian leadership and eventual political unification of Germany. -
A wave of liberal, nationalist, and social uprisings swept across Europe—from France and the German states to Italy and Hungary—demanding constitutions, unification, and social reforms. While most movements were eventually crushed or co-opted, they accelerated the decline of old regimes and planted seeds for future nation-states. -
Proclaimed after Louis Philippe’s fall. Ended when Louis-Napoleon became emperor. 1848-1852 -
Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte proclaimed himself Emperor Napoleon III after manipulating plebiscites, inaugurating an authoritarian yet economically progressive regime that modernized Paris and promoted industrial expansion. His foreign policy ambitions led to mixed results, including victories in Italy but disastrous defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, which ended his reign. 1852-1870 -
As part of the Second Italian War of Independence, Franco-Piedmontese forces under Napoleon III engaged and defeated Austrian armies at Magenta and Solferino, compelling Austria to cede Lombardy. The carnage at Solferino inspired Henri Dunant to found the Red Cross and catalyzed the development of international humanitarian law. 4 june 1859-june 24 1859 -
Giuseppe Garibaldi landed in Sicily with his “Expedition of the Thousand,” a volunteer force that rapidly overthrew Bourbon rule in southern Italy through popular support and daring military tactics. His campaign was instrumental in unifying Italy under the House of Savoy, demonstrating the potency of nationalist fervor. -
Former King of Sardinia-Piedmont, Victor Emmanuel II was declared the first monarch of a united Italy following the annexation of most peninsular territories. His reign symbolized the successful culmination of the Risorgimento and established the new kingdom’s dynastic continuity. -
Fought between Denmark and the allied armies of Prussia and Austria over the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, the conflict ended with Danish defeat and the London Protocol’s redistribution of territories. The war marked the rise of Prussian military prowess and foreshadowed future contests for German leadership. -
A brief but decisive conflict in which Prussia, employing superior rail mobilization and the needle gun, routed Austrian forces at Königgrätz, effectively excluding Austria from German affairs. The victory enabled the North German Confederation’s creation under Prussian dominance, accelerating unification. -
King of Prussia since 1861, Wilhelm I was proclaimed German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles after Prussia’s victory over France, marking the formal birth of the German Empire. His reign, guided by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, ushered in a new era of great-power politics in Europe. -
Initiated by Bismarck to galvanize southern German states, Prussia and its allies besieged and captured Napoleon III at Sedan, triggering the collapse of the Second Empire and the Paris Commune’s subsequent turmoil. The conflict concluded with the Treaty of Frankfurt, ceding Alsace-Lorraine to Germany and cementing German unity. 1870-1871