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The Earth enters a period of intense cold during the Ice Age, and large amounts of water are locked in glaciers, lowering sea levels. This creates a land bridge, called Beringia, between present-day Siberia (Asia) and Alaska (North America).
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Early human groups, likely following large game like mammoths, begin moving eastward across Beringia, unaware they are moving from one continent to another. These groups were small and highly mobile, relying on hunting and gathering.
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As glaciers cover much of North America, human groups continue to move across Beringia. At this point, some may have started settling in Beringia, living off the land while others continued migrating further into the Americas.
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The ice begins to recede as the climate warms slightly, but the Bering Strait remains passable for thousands of years. Migration continues, possibly accelerating as the mammoth herds move further south.
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With ice sheets retreating, the first groups may have begun moving south along the Pacific coast, where the climate was less harsh. These groups might have made use of small boats or followed coastal resources.
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By this time, humans have settled as far as the southern United States and Central America. Distinct tools and cultures, such as the Clovis point, begin to emerge.
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The Bering Strait land bridge disappears as the sea level rises again, but humans have already spread across North, Central, and South America. Settlements become more established, leading to the development of diverse Native American cultures.
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• Maya civilization (250 CE – 900 CE): During this time, the Maya built monumental cities like Tikal and Palenque, developed advanced mathematics, astronomy, and writing, and engaged in intricate political and religious ceremonies. -
• Teotihuacan civilization (200 CE – 600 CE): Located near present-day Mexico City, Teotihuacan became one of the largest cities in the world at its peak. Known for its pyramids, such as the Pyramid of the Sun and the Moon, the city was a significant cultural and economic center. -
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• Toltec civilization (900 CE – 1150 CE): The Toltecs, centered in Tula, influenced later civilizations like the Aztecs. They are known for their military prowess and monumental architecture. -
Mexicas entered to the valley of Mexico -
They were composed from different cultures, such as teotihuacans. -
Mexicas settled in Chapultepec that eventually became the city of Tenochtitlan. -
• Aztec civilization (1325 CE – 1521 CE): The Aztecs established their capital at Tenochtitlán, built impressive temples and engaged in vast trade networks. Their empire extended across much of central Mexico until the Spanish conquest. -
Olmecs had a real monarchy. Moctezuma was the emperor after the Olmecs monarchy. -
Moctezuma had military talents, victorious campaigns, great conqueror, organizer, builder and patron of the arts. -
• Inca civilization (1438 CE – 1533 CE): As the largest empire in the pre-Columbian Americas, the Inca controlled a vast territory in the Andes. They are known for their advanced agricultural techniques, extensive road systems, and cities like Machu Picchu. -
Christopher Columbus reaches the Americas, marking the beginning of European exploration. -
Treaty of Tordesillas, dividing the Americas between Spain and Portugal. -
• Olmec civilization (1500 BCE – 400 BCE): Often considered the “mother culture” of Mesoamerica, the Olmec created large stone heads and developed early forms of writing and calendar systems. They inhabited modern-day southern Mexico. -
• Zapotec civilization (1500 BCE – 250 CE): Located in the Oaxaca Valley, the Zapotecs began building cities, including Monte Albán, and used early forms of hieroglyphic writing. -
Toltecs successors created an empire that lasted 3 centuries -
Hernán Cortés arrives in Mexico and allies with Indigenous groups opposed to the Aztecs. -
The Massacre in the Great Temple; Moctezuma II dies. -
The Aztec capital, Tenochtitlán, falls after months of siege, marking the collapse of the Aztec Empire. -
Francisco Pizarro conducts the first expeditions to Inca territory. -
Francisco Pizarro captures Inca Emperor Atahualpa during the Battle of Cajamarca. -
Spanish establish the New Laws, aimed at limiting the abuse of Indigenous people under the encomienda system. -
Widespread population decline among Indigenous peoples due to European diseases (smallpox, measles) and harsh labor systems. -
Independence movements in the Americas continue to marginalize Indigenous societies.