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Brother of Louis XVI, restored the Bourbon monarchy in France under a constitutional system after Napoleon's fall. -
A meeting of the victorious powers after Napoleon’s defeat to restore the old monarchies and redraw the map of Europe. -
Napoleon Bonaparte’s final defeat by British and Prussian forces, ending his rule and the Napoleonic Wars. -
A brief period in Spain where liberals restored the 1812 Constitution and limited royal power before being crushed by absolutists with foreign support. -
Revolt against the Ottoman Empire, supported by European powers; led to official recognition of Greek independence in 1830. -
Tried to rule France as an absolute monarch, provoking the July Revolution of 1830 which forced him to abdicate. -
A revolution against the United Kingdom of the Netherlands; Belgium became an independent, constitutional monarchy. -
was officially established on January 1, 1834. This was the date when the customs union came into effect, starting with Prussia and several smaller German states joining together to remove trade barriers and create a unified economic area. -
the republican government of France between the 1848 Revolution and the 1851 coup by Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte that initiated the Second Empire -
a series of revolutions throughout Europe over the course of more than one year, from 1848 to 1849 -
Known as the “Citizen King”; ruled under a constitutional monarchy favoring the bourgeoisie. Deposed during the 1848 revolution. -
Proclaimed after the February Revolution of 1848. Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte was elected president before becoming emperor. -
Second Empire, (1852–70) period in France under the rule of Emperor Napoleon III (the original empire having been that of Napoleon I). In its early years (1852–59), the empire was authoritarian but enjoyed economic growth and pursued a favourable foreign policy -
Key victories by the Kingdom of Sardinia and France against Austria during the Second Italian War of Independence. -
The king of the Two Sicilies was overthrown by Giuseppe Garibaldi in 1860, after which the people voted in a plebiscite to join the Kingdom of Sardinia. The annexation of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies completed the first phase of Italian unification, and the new Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed in 1861. -
First king of a united Italy, previously the king of Sardinia-Piedmont, symbolizing Italian unification. -
The Danish-Prussian War, also known as the Second Schleswig War, took place in 1864. It was a conflict between the Kingdom of Denmark and an alliance of the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Empire -
The Austro-Prussian War, also known as the Seven Weeks' War, was fought between the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Empire (along with its German allies) in 1866. It was a decisive conflict in the struggle for dominance over the German states and a key step toward the unification of Germany under Prussian leadership. -
Wilhelm I (also spelled William I) was proclaimed Kaiser (Emperor) of the Second German Reich on January 18, 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles, during the final phase of the Franco-Prussian War. -
The Franco-Prussian War was fought between the Second French Empire (under Napoleon III) and the Kingdom of Prussia (leading the North German Confederation) from July 19, 1870, to May 10, 1871. -
Peaceful workers marching to the Winter Palace are fired upon by troops. The massacre sparks the 1905 Revolution. -
Sailors rebel against brutal conditions in the Black Sea Fleet. The mutiny becomes a symbol of revolutionary resistance. -
Tsar Nicholas II promises civil liberties and a legislative Duma. The manifesto aims to calm widespread strikes and unrest. -
The heir to Austria-Hungary is assassinated in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip. The event triggers the July Crisis and the outbreak of World War I. -
Following the assassination, Austria-Hungary attacks Serbia. Alliance obligations rapidly draw Europe into a global war. -
Germany declares war on Russia, escalating the conflict. The declaration activates alliance systems across Europe. -
Nicholas II abdicates the throne, ending over 300 years of Romanov rule. A Provisional Government takes power. -
Strikes and demonstrations erupt in Petrograd over food shortages. Soldiers mutiny, turning protests into revolution. -
Lenin arrives in Petrograd and calls for “Peace, Land, Bread.” He urges an immediate end to war and Bolshevik power. -
Bolsheviks seize key points in Petrograd, including the Winter Palace. The Provisional Government is overthrown. -
Bolsheviks seize key points in Petrograd, including the Winter Palace. The Provisional Government is overthrown. -
The Second Congress of Soviets endorses Bolshevik rule. A new Soviet government is formally established. -
The Bolshevik government signs an armistice with Germany and its allies. Fighting on the Eastern Front ends. -
The Czech Legion rises along the Trans-Siberian Railway. Their revolt helps ignite the Russian Civil War. -
The Red Army fights White forces, nationalists, and foreign interventions. Bolshevik victory secures control. -
Russia formally exits World War I, ceding vast territories. The treaty secures peace but at enormous cost. -
Germany signs an armistice ending the fighting. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk is later annulled by the victors. -
Lenin introduces limited market reforms to revive the economy. NEP follows famine and war exhaustion. -
![USSR formed, consolidating Bolshevik control.[context]](https://s3.amazonaws.com/s3.timetoast.com/public/uploads/photo/23398882/image/medium-084f0188d6308234f812c4d425d84107.webp?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Credential=AKIAJB6ZCNNAN7BE7WDQ%2F20260107%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260107T094216Z&X-Amz-Expires=604800&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Signature=027f923cc1ee4d7cacacb83fde8dcb5f07e8bc7d97bb4afa32d64893cef82bb9)
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is established. Bolshevik authority is consolidated across republics. -
Lenin dies after prolonged illness. A power struggle begins, eventually leading to Stalin’s rise.