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Louis XVIII, king of France
Brother of Louis XVI, restored the Bourbon monarchy in France under a constitutional system after Napoleon's fall. -
Waterloo Battle
A meeting of the victorious powers after Napoleon’s defeat to restore the old monarchies and redraw the map of Europe. -
Battle of Waterloo
Napoleon Bonaparte’s final defeat by British and Prussian forces, ending his rule and the Napoleonic Wars. -
Spanish Liberal Biennium
A brief period in Spain where liberals restored the 1812 Constitution and limited royal power before being crushed by absolutists with foreign support. -
Independence of Greece
Revolt against the Ottoman Empire, supported by European powers; led to official recognition of Greek independence in 1830. -
Charles X, king of France
Tried to rule France as an absolute monarch, provoking the July Revolution of 1830 which forced him to abdicate. -
Independence of Belgium
A revolution against the United Kingdom of the Netherlands; Belgium became an independent, constitutional monarchy. -
The Zollverein
was officially established on January 1, 1834. This was the date when the customs union came into effect, starting with Prussia and several smaller German states joining together to remove trade barriers and create a unified economic area. -
France's Second Republic
the republican government of France between the 1848 Revolution and the 1851 coup by Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte that initiated the Second Empire -
Revolution of 1848, the Spring of Nations
a series of revolutions throughout Europe over the course of more than one year, from 1848 to 1849 -
Louis Philippe, king of France
Known as the “Citizen King”; ruled under a constitutional monarchy favoring the bourgeoisie. Deposed during the 1848 revolution. -
France Second Republic
Proclaimed after the February Revolution of 1848. Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte was elected president before becoming emperor. -
France's Second Empire: Napoleon III
Second Empire, (1852–70) period in France under the rule of Emperor Napoleon III (the original empire having been that of Napoleon I). In its early years (1852–59), the empire was authoritarian but enjoyed economic growth and pursued a favourable foreign policy -
Battles of Magenta and Solferino
Key victories by the Kingdom of Sardinia and France against Austria during the Second Italian War of Independence. -
Garibaldi conquered the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
The king of the Two Sicilies was overthrown by Giuseppe Garibaldi in 1860, after which the people voted in a plebiscite to join the Kingdom of Sardinia. The annexation of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies completed the first phase of Italian unification, and the new Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed in 1861. -
Victor Emmanuel II King of Italy
First king of a united Italy, previously the king of Sardinia-Piedmont, symbolizing Italian unification. -
Danish-Prussian War
The Danish-Prussian War, also known as the Second Schleswig War, took place in 1864. It was a conflict between the Kingdom of Denmark and an alliance of the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Empire