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NAACP Is Founded
The National Association For The Advancement Of Coloured People was founded in 1909.The NAACP worked to erode a Supreme Court case (Plessy vs Fergurson) which upheld the constitutionality of segregation under the “separate but equal” doctrine.And they aimed to give black and white people to integrate and therefore right to have equal facilities.(Black facilities were often in much worse condition than white ones) -
1917-The Beginning of Russian-American Hatred
After the Russian Revolution in 1917, Russia became the world's first Communist country. Communist Russia was known as either
the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics/ the USSR/Soviet Union.
The Communist victory in Russia led to the first US Red Scare (red flags symbolised revolutionary workers, so Americans called Communists "Reds"). In this first period of anti-Communist hysteria, Americans imagined that their country was threatened by Communists. -
Nation Of Islam Is Founded
Wallace Fard founded the Nation of Islam in 1930 in Detroit. Christianity was the white man's religion,declared Fard.It was forced on African Americans during the slave experience.Islam was closer to African roots and identity.Members of the NOI read the Koran, worship Allah as their God, and accept Mohammed as their chief prophet.Mixed with the religious tenets of Islam were Black pride and nationalism.The followers of Fard became known as Black Muslims.in 1934 Elijah Muhammad became leader. -
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Franklin D. Roosevelt Is President Of The USA
. Franklin D. Roosevelt (March 4, 1933—April 12, 1945) -
President Roosevelt Recognises the USSR to ease Soviet-American Relations
The US hatred of Communism was so great that it was 1933 before US President Franklin D. Roosevelt officially recognised the existence of the USSR. Soviet-American relations then improved a little. -
The House of Representatives Committee on Un-American Activities Is Created
The House of Representatives Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) was set up in 1938. When the Republicans won a majority of seats in the House of Representatives in 1947, they were able to dominate HUAC. -
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Problems Between the US and the USSR During WW2
There was Soviet-American mistrust due to their political beliefs.Stalin felt that the US+UK took too long to send troops against the Germans.Soviet armies promoted Communism in the East European countries through which they passed-Communist expansionism.Americans developed the atomic bomb.They tried to keep it secret from Stalin,but his spies found out.When the Americans dropped atomic bombs on Japan to end the war in the Pacific,Stalin said the balance of power had changed in favour of the US -
CORE Is Founded
James Farmer, a Christian Socialist was one of the founders of the Congress On Racial Equality in 1942 and was its 1st National Director.CORE was founded by a group of students on the Campus of the University of Chicago.Many of the founders of CORE where followers of the Ghandian principles of non-violent civil disobedience and belonged to an organization called F.O.R. (Fellowship of Reconciliation).It was relatively unknown until it organised the Freedom Rides of 1961 -
Smith vs Allwright-No exclusion From Primaries
1944 -- no exclusion from primaries
Republicans and Democrats decided on their candidate for a particular office in primary elections. In Smith v Allwright (1944) the Supreme Court ruled that African-Americans could not be excluded from primary elections in Texas.The lawyer who argued this case was an NAACP lawyer Thurgood Marshall -
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Harry S. Truman Is President Of The USA
Harry S. Truman (April 12, 1945—January 20, 1953) -
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Disagreements Between America and Communists over Property,Distribution of Wealth,Political Parties and the Promotion of Revolution.
Communists believed property should be redistributed in order to achieve equality/Americans believed in the American Dream
Communists believed governments must control the economy and redistribute wealth/Americans favoured capitalism
Communists favoured a one party state/Americans preferred a democratic multi-party system.
Communists talked of promoting world revolution/Americans did not want a working-class revolution in their country and feared countries that tried to encourage revolutions -
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Soviet-American Tensions After WW2
After World War II ended the increasingly hostile Soviet-American relationship was described as a "Cold War" because Soviet-American forces never met on the battlefield. Instead, both countries:
stockpiled large quantities of nuclear weapons
worked to win other nations to their side
supported groups in civil wars in other countries
There were several landmark events in the early years of the Cold War. These included:Truman Doctrine,Marshall Plan, Berlin Crisis,Korean War. -
American Drops Bombs on Japan
The Us dropped two atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Nagasaki and Hiroshima. Hundreds of thousands of people died.This ended the war in the Pacific.This made the USSR anxious because President Truman had kept this secret from them,though Stalins spies had found out.This made the USSR suspicious of the USA -
End Of WW2
In August 1945,the war was finally over.After a bloody and protracted battle in the East,the Americans had taken the decision to drop atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki ,they had been decimated and hundreds of thousands of people had dies due to the bombs.But after six long years WW2 was finally over and Harry S Truman,33rd President of the US was a hero. -
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Second Red Scare
The USA had two periods of hysterical Anti-Communism which were known as Red Scares.The first was in WW1 the second happened in the late 1940s and Early 1950s.The main reasons for the second Red Scare were
1. US anti-Communism.
2. Communist expansionism (1945-50).
3. Republican political ambitions.
4. HUAC
5. Truman's Loyalty Order
6. Spies.
7. Senator Joseph McCarthy -
Communism Expands Through Eastern Europe-"An Iron Curtain Has Descended"
20 million Russians died in WW2.Stalin said he needed to ensure that neighbouring countries were friendly,so this devastation wasn't repeated.The Soviet army moved around Eastern Europe liberating countries from Nazi oppression and placing authoritarian Communist rulers.Within a few years Poland,Czechoslovakia,Hungary,Bulgaria and Romania had all become Communist."An Iron Curtain had descended' said Churchill in 1946.Domino Effect i.e. if one county falls to communism is neighbour will too. -
Truman Doctrine
President Truman (1945-53) made a virtual declaration of Cold War in a March 1947 speech to Congress.He said "I believe it must be the policy of the United States to support free people who are resisting attempted subjugation armed minorities or by outside pressures".Truman was committing Americans to support the monarchists who were fighting against communists in Greece.He was also announcing that the US was dedicated to stopping the spread of communism.This speech was known as Truman Doctrine. -
Loyalty Boards-Government Contributes To The Red Scare
By a Loyalty Order from the President the FBI and the Justice Department under J.Edgar Hoover set up Loyalty Boards.They were set up to investigate the loyalty of federal employees(find out if they were communist).Truman was unhappy about this"In a free country we punish men for the crimes they commit but never for the opinions they have" but he was under pressure from Republicans so he went ahead.3 million investigations from 1947-50 and 200 lost jobs though no Communist links were ever proved -
The Hollywood Ten-HUAC Contributes Towards Red Scare
In 1947,10 leading Hollywood directors and scriptwriters were called before HUAC,under suspicion of having Communist sympathies.They refused to answer the question,pleading the 1st Amendment of the American Constitution(every person is free to believe what they want).The Hollywood Ten were sentenced to a year in jail for contempt for the court.They were blacklisted by major studios and did not work in Hollywood again. -
Marshall Aid
General George Marshall commanded the US Army during World War II. In 1947, President Truman appointed him Secretary of State. Marshall was shocked by post-war West European poverty and feared Western Europe might turn Communist. Truman therefore agreed that $13 billion of "Marshall Aid" should be offered to the West European democracies.President Harry Truman signed the Marshall Plan on April 3, 1948 -
Shelley vs Kraemer-Equality In House Purchasing
This law was a case of a black family of the name of Shelley who bought a house in Missouri and was unaware that in 1911 a covenant had been placed to stop any houses being sold to black people because it was a 'white' area. Louis Kraemer sued to prevent the Shelleys from gaining possession of the property.The Supreme Court acknowledged that this went against the 14th amendment and therefore racially-based restrictive covenants were unconstitutional. -
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The Berlin Crisis/Berlin Blockade
Germany was divided into 4 zones,as was its capital Berlin.The French,UK and US zone joined up to make West Germany,and had control over West Berlin in East Germany.East Germany was ruled by the Soviets.West Germany was flourishing,could oversee East Germany from Berlin and had people from the east migrating to it.Stalin was angered by these facts so he blocked all access routes to begin from 24/6/1948 to 12/5/1948.The west had to airlift supplies to west Berlin.After 11 months Stalin gave in. -
The USSR Announces That It Has Developed Its Own Atomic Bomb.
At a remote test site at Semipalatinsk in Kazakhstan, the USSR successfully detonated its first atomic bomb, code name “First Lightning.The atomic explosion, which at 20 kilotons was roughly equal to “Trinity,” the first U.S. atomic explosion.This made the US suspicious. -
Alger Hiss - Contribution To the Red Scare
The HUAC investigation of Alger Hiss received significant attention in the press.Hiss worked for the State Department,but was accused by a colleague of having previously been a Communist.Although Hiss denied it,under intense scrutiny by one Richard Nixon,it transpired that he had been a Communist in the 1930s.Hiss was sentenced to jail for five years for perjury.Nixon who had been a junior Senator gained widespread attention. -
The Beginning Of McCarthyism
In Feb 1950,Senator Joseph McCarthy made a speech."I have in my hand 57 cases of individuals( in the State Department) who appear to be either card carrying members or certainly loyal to the Communist Party".He gave many similar speeches with the number going from 57 to 205.He never produced his list of the individuals.The Senate responded by establishing a committee under Democrat Senator Tydings.The Tydings committee investigated the charges and declared them a fraud and a hoax. -
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Things That Supported McCarthyism
US was in a period of hysterical anti-Communism,Communist expansionism,Truman Doctrine,Communist China and the Korean War fuelled the fire.Republicans supported McCarthy to try and regain control of the presidency and Congress,which Democrats had occupied for "20 years of treason".McCarthy was on good terms with reporters so there was little criticism of him in the press.Republican President Eisenhower (1953-61) refused to stand up to McCarthy, saying he did not want to stoop to his level. -
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McCarthyism's Effects-Destroying Of Careers
McCarthy and McCarthyism destroyed many careers. Thanks to congressional investigations that prompted state governments to begin their investigations,several 1000 state and local government employees,schoolteachers and college professors lost their jobs.100s were jailed and over 150 were deported.Amongst McCarthy's high profile victims were:
Senator Millard Tydings and Charlie Chaplin -
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McCarthyism Strains Soviet-American Relations
McCarthy's anti-Communist crusade made it difficult for Presidents Truman or Eisenhower to negotiate with either the USSR or China, so the Cold War remained dangerously tense. -
Henderson v United States,McLaurin v Oklahoma State Regents and Sweatt v Painter
1950 -- equality in railroad cars and in universities
There were three very important Supreme Court rulings against segregation in 1950:
In Henderson v United States the court ruled that segregation on interstate railroad cars was unconstitutional.
In McLaurin v Oklahoma State Regents and Sweatt v Painter, the court ruled that black students were entitled to an equal standard of university education as white students. -
Malcolm X Joins The Nation Of Islam
At 16,Malcolm went to Boston's black ghetto and turned to crime. While in jail , he converted to the NOI, which taught him that "the white man is the devil". Malcolm said that was "a perfect echo" of his "lifelong experience".Malcolm Little refused to be known by his "slave name" and opted to be called "Malcolm X". Malcolm aimed to improve the lives of black people. He wanted help blacks by encouraging them to join
NOI, to adopt a religious life, and to favour separatism and self-defence. -
Money Is Given To French For Vietnam War
1950 -- President Truman gave millions of dollars in aid to help the French fight Communism in Vietnam. -
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Korean War
Korea had been divided since 1945 when the Soviets had liberated to North and established communism and the Americans had liberated the south and had established a a democratic government.
In 1950 Stalin allowed North Korea to attack South Korea.The USA and its allies in the United Nations fought to save South Korea from Communist North Korea in the Korean War (1950-53). This Korean War encouraged the United States to begin to give aid to the forces opposing Communism in Vietnam. -
McCarran Act-One Effect Of Red Scare/McCarthyism
Congress passed the Internal Security Act over President Truman’s veto.Also known as the McCarran Act it strengthened laws against espionage,allowed investigation and deportation of immigrants who were suspected of subversive activities,promoting communism or fascism,and allowed the limitation of free speech for national security reasons.President Truman opposed the law that he believed“would make a mockery of our Bill of Rights would and actually weaken our internal security measures. -
McCarthyism Grows Throughout 1952-1953
When Truman,who disliked McCarthy,was replaced by Eisenhower,he rose to stardom.He was trusted to investigate the Communist threat.He spoke against democratic Senators who had been involved in the New Deal, and he forged a picture of Tydings and the leader of Communist Party.He launched a campaign against libraries with un-american books and published a list of books which he wanted removed.He used congressional committees to investigate communists in media,universities and entertainment -
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Malcolm X's Time In the Nation Of Islam
After his release, Malcolm won thousands of recruits for the NOI until he left the NOI in 1964 because of Elijah Muhammad's romantic affairs and refusal to allow Malcolm to join those risking their lives alongside Martin Luther King in Birmingham in 1963. "We spout our militant revolutionary rhetoric," said Malcolm, but "when our own brothers are... killed, we do nothing."Malcolm believed that black people should not be campaigning for equal rights,but instead for better rights and separatism -
McCarthyism Affects US Internal Politics
In 1952 there was an overall Republican win with the first Republican President (Eisenhower) for 20 years and an overwhelming amount of Republican senators.McCarthy aided this by discrediting Democrat senators , especially those who disliked him or were involved with Roosevelt's 'New Deal' -
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Dwight D. Eisenhower Is President Of The USA
Dwight D. Eisenhower (January 20, 1953—January 20, 1961) -
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McCarthy's Fall And Censure
He accused Secretary of State Dean Acheson and Secretary of Defense George Marshall (WW2 hero) of being Communist,all but 3 senators walked out of the Senate chamber.The final straw came when McCarthy investigated a supposed Communist spy ring in Fort Monmouth New Jersey.In the "Army-McCarthy" hearings, McCarthy appeared unshaven and drunk. His popularity collapsed and in 1955 the Senate passed a vote of censure against him.He also received some bad press from some sections of the media. -
The Rosenberg s Are Executed-June 19th 1953
America was taken by surprise when the Soviets announced that they had created nuclear weapons in 1949.This was much earlier than they had expected.Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were accused of sending information about atoms to Soviet scientists.They were convicted in March 1951 and were executed two years later.They were accused by Ethel's brother David.Like Julius, David and his wife were Soviet spies.David confessed that he had lied about his sister being a spy for the freedom of his wife. -
Earl Warren Is Appointed 14th Chief Justice Of The USA
In 1953 Eisenhower appointed Earl Warren for the role of Chief Justice of the Supreme Court in 1953.The Warren Court was seen to be very liberal and forward thinking.As seen in the landmark Brown v Topeka. When the liberal justices of the Supreme Court ruled against segregated education, they undermined Plessy v Ferguson and all constitutional justification for segregation. -
Brown vs Board of Education
Oliver Brown was a minister in Topeka,Kansas His daughter Linda Brown could not attend the 'white' school 2 blocks away.She had to cross a railroad to get to the black school that was 20 blocks away.The NAACP took up his case with Thurgood Marshall.The Supreme Court ruled in Brown that even if segregated facilities were equal segregated education was psychologically harmful to black children.It was ruled that she could go to her nearest school and that all schools should be desegregated -
Acceptance Of The Brown v Topeka Ruling
Acceptance of the Brown ruling varied.Desegregation took place relatively speedily in some Southern cities and in states outside the Deep South, such as Delaware, Kentucky, Maryland, Missouri, Oklahoma and West Virginia. However, schools remained segregated in the states of the Deep South (Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi and South Carolina). This showed how difficult it was to enforce Supreme Court rulings. -
French Leave A Divided Vietnam
1954 -- In a treaty signed in Geneva, France agreed to exit Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh ,who became leader of the North had emerged from WW2 as a hero for fighting the Japanese,but when he revealed his communist leanings the USA was horrified.Vietnam was to be temporarily divided into a Communist-governed northern part and a non-Communist southern part. President Eisenhower then insisted that division was permanent and poured billions of dollars into the non-Communist government in the south. -
White Citizens Councils
The White Citizens' Councils were an network of white supremacist organizations in the United States concentrated in the South.The first was formed on July 1954 in response to Brown v Topeka.With many members across the US,mostly in the South,the groups were founded to oppose desegregation of schools,but they also opposed voter registration efforts and integration of public facilities.Intimidation tactics were used including economic boycotts,firing people from jobs,propaganda,and violence. -
Rosa Parks Is Arrested
On 1st of December 1955,Rosa Parks, secretary for the Montgomery NAACP branch got on a bus.The bus quickly filled up and Parks, who was sitting in the back 'black' section was asked to give up her seat for a white person.When she refused,the bus driver pulled over and refused to drive.He called the police and Parks was arrested,charged and fined.This sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott. -
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The Montgomery Bus Boycott
News of Park's arrest spread and people were horrified.The Montgomery Improvement Association was formed with Martin Luther King as its leader.The black community boycotted the bus on the day of her trial.However when the city rejected demands for a 'first come,first served' system on segregated buses,the boycott lasted for a whole year.The MIA now demanded desegregation on buses.The NAACP brought this to an end in the Supreme Court Case of Browder v Gayle in 1956 and the buses were desegregated -
SCLC Is Founded
The Southern Christian Leadership Conference was founded in January 1957 by Martin Luther King.He was president of the organisation until his death in 1968.This organisation had 3 wants: Whites to not stand by and watch while wrongs were being committed against the blacks,Black Americans were encouraged to seek justice and reject all injustice and those associated with SCLC had to accept the philosophy of non-violence.The organisation worked to abolish segregation and enable black people to vote -
Little Rock Nine
The Little Rock city authorities chose Central High School as the first school to be intergrated.The local NAACP encouraged 9 black students to enter.However,Arkansas governor Orval Faubus was facing re-election and to win votes,he sent in soldiers to stop the students from entering.A mob of white people surrounded the school and screamed insults at the children.President Eisenhower had to send in federal troops to protect the Little Rock Nine.They attended the school for a time but were bullied -
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King's Struggle With The Police,Kennedy's Support For King
In 1960 King was arrested whilst at a lunch counter.Although these charges were dropped,he was then charged with a traffic offences and sentenced to 4 months of labour in a prison in Georgia.These charges were seen at the time as being largely falsified; an attempt to tell King to back off the Civil Rights Campaign.Kennedy was among those who telephoned King's wife,Coretta to offer his support in light of what was seen as an over-reaction by the authorities.King was released from prison early. -
Sit-Ins February 1960
On February 1,1960,4 black college students went into a segregated Woolworths lunch counter in Greensboro,North Carolina.They sat in the white part of the restaurant and refused to move because they were refused service.King contacted them and encouraged them at once.This launched a wave of anti-segregation sit-ins across the South and opened a national awareness of the depth of segregation in the nation.Over 70,000 students joined in so by summer,Woolworths desegregated their lunch counters. -
The Contraceptive Pill Is Approved By The FDA
The Food and Drug Administration(FDA)approved the world’s 1st commercially produced birth-control pill Enovid10,made by the GD.Searle Company of Chicago on May 9 1960.Development of the pill,was commissioned by Margaret Sanger and funded by Katherine McCormick.Sanger,who opened the 1st birth-control clinic in 1916,encouraged the development of a more practical alternative to contraceptives of the day.Tests of the pill, which used synthetic progesterone+estrogen to repress ovulation,began in 1954 -
1960 Poll Shows Gender Inequality
Women made:80% of teachers but only 10% of head teachers,40% of students and only 10% of professors.67% of federal workforce but 2% of senior management.7% of doctors and 3% of lawyers.
18 states forbade women jurors17 forbade women bartenders,and 6 said that women couldnt enter into a financial agreement without a male co-signatory.Schools expelled pregnant girls and teachers -
Students For A Democratic Society Is Founded
In 1960,Tom Hayden and other University of Michigan students established SDS.This was founded in AnnHarbour Michigan and was part of the New Left.SDS flourished and there were quickly chapters in over 150 colleges.By the end of the 1960s,there were over 100000 members from 400 colleges.SDS wanted to fight the establishment and change the system.Members of SDS were involved in campaigns for Civil Rights,Anti-Vietnam War,Women's Rights,Nuclear Disarmament and Improving student's rights in colleges -
SNCC Is Founded
The students set up their own organisation, the Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) (pronounced SNICK). SNCC believed that overreliance on a single leader such as King was dangerous ("Strong people do not need strong leaders") and SNCC preferred working at grassroots level to empower ordinary people to fight their own battles.It was started by an SCLC member in the wake of the Greensboro sit-ins who wanted to reach out to younger people. -
Young American's For Freedom Is Founded
Young American's For Freedom (YAF).It's motto was: "Passing on the Torch of Freedom" and it was part of the "New Right" it was a conservative Student Group -
Kennedy Inaugural Address
In his first speech as President,Kennedy encouraged idealism, saying "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country." He urged people to think about issues such as "peace and war" and "poverty and surplus". In the world's richest country, with a youthful, idealistic president, some students felt it was time to protest against the world as it was and to try to make it a better place. -
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John F Kennedy Is President Of The USA
John F. Kennedy (January 20, 1961—November 22, 1963)He was a Democrat.He was the 1st Catholic President.He had plans for introducing improved medical aid for the elderly and federal aid for education,but was thwarted by a distracting foreign policy (Cold War,Cuban Missile Crisis,Vietnam" and a tough Congress.Despite this he did manage to to introduce the Equal Pay Act of 1963 and he secured more public funding for poorer areas. -
Freedom Rides
In 1961 an mixed group took a bus ride across the South to test Supreme Court rulings against segregation on interstate transport. These Freedom Rides were organised by CORE.The buses were attacked by white racists,notably at Anniston,Alabama,where a bus was firebombed and a white mob tried to stop them exiting the bus.Attorney General Robert Kennedy enforced the rulings on the desegregation of interstate transport.King supported them but was criticised for not going on a ride -
Anniston Fire Bombing
In one of the Freedom Rides ( where an integrated group took bus trips across the south to test desegregation laws ).The buses tires were slashed and a hostile white mob surrounded the bus after slashing its tyres.A fire bomb was thrown into the bus and the mob attempted to stop the freedom riders from leaving the burning bus and beat them up as they did.This occurred in Alabama.This made Attorney General Robert Kennedy enforce the rulings on the desegregation of interstate transport. -
Port Huron Statement
In 1962, SDS, SNCC, CORE and Student Peace Union representatives met in Port Huron, Michigan.Their Port Huron Statement,written by Tom Hayden, encouraged students to change US politics and society by liberating the poor,the non-whites and the conformists.They wanted to encourage grassroots democracy, end discrimination,allow more students to have more say on how universities were run, and bring about a new dawn in America. -
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Cuban Missile Crisis 1962
14th U2 spy planes saw Soviet missiles capable of carrying nuclear warheads in Cuba.This was a Soviet reaction to the US missiles in Turkey.22nd Kennedy announced on TV a naval blockade of Cuba to stop Soviets sending missiles and planes over Cuba holding nuclear weapons.24th Khrushchev sends 20 Russian ships to Cuba and tells them to ignore the blockade.On 27th Khrushchev concedes and removed the missiles and the US removed their missiles,promised not to invade Cuba and stops blockade. -
Integration Of Mississippi University Riots
In 1962,Kennedy sent troops to keep the peace when James Meredith became the 1st black man to enrol at University of Mississippi.Meredith had been rejected by the University twice before but was granted a place when he appealed on the grounds that his race had been a barrier.In the violence that surrounded Meredith's entry the riots ended with 2 dead, 100 wounded and many arrested after the Kennedy administration called out some 31,000 National Guardsmen and other federal forces to enforce order -
Birmingham,Alamaba 1963
King and SCLC led marches to protest discrimination in Birmingham.Police Chief Bull Connor showed no mercy.Children were encouraged to join.The media coverage of white policemen setting dogs and using high-powered hoses on peaceful,young black Americans was horrifying.Kennedy said that the chaos in Birmingham discredited the US.Birmingham was used to demonstrate the evils of Southern racism because King knew that Connor would use violence which would force the federal government to intervene. -
Equal Pay Act
The Equal Pay Act of 1963 is a United States labor law amending the Fair Labor Standards Act, aimed at abolishing wage disparity based on sex. It was signed into law on June 10, 1963, by John F. Kennedy as part of his New Frontier Program.This was a result of the Commission on the Status Of Women -
Extra Events and Causes Of Birmingham
On the same day as Kennedy spoke on radio and TV of Birmingham,"If an American,because his skin is dark,cannot eat lunch in a restaurant open to the public,if he cannot send his children to the best public school available...It is time to act in Congress".A black NAACP activist,Medgar Evers was brutally murdered in Mississippi.Birmingham was a big deal because it had a strong KKK connections,King's brothers house and King's motel room was bombed and Birmingham helped the Civil Rights Bill -
The Feminine Mystique
Smith College graduate Betty Friedan wrote about her dissatisfaction with her life as a suburban housewife in The Feminine Mystique (1963) and dubbed the dissatisfaction of housewives as the problem that has no name.She argued that women such as she were imprisoned in a comfortable concentration camp and unable to fulfil their potential.The book was a bestseller, particularly popular amongst college students.The Feminine Mystique is often credited with inciting the second wave feminist movement -
The Commission on The Status Of Women
Eleanor Roosevelt,was involved with the UN and was significant in drafting its Declaration of Human Rights.In 1969 she approached Kennedy and he established the Commission on the Status of Women.It reported back in 1963: Women made 80% teachers+10% heads,40%students+10% professors+67% federal workforce,2% senior management+7%doctors+ 3%lawyers.18 states banned women jurors,17 banned women bartenders,6 said that women could't enter a financial agreement without a male cosignatory. -
March On Washington For Jobs and Freedom
On August 28, 1963, more than 250,000 integrated Americans gathered in Washington, D.C., for a political rally known as the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. Organized by SCLC and NAACP,SNCC and CORE, the event shed light on the political and social challenges blacks faced across the country.The march,which became a key moment in the growing struggle for civil rights in the US is famous for Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech, a spirited call for racial justice and equality. -
John F. Kennedy is Assassinated
Kennedy,America's 35th President was in his 40s,good looking and Charismatic.He was a Democrat and was also the first Catholic President where WASP (White Anglo Saxon Protestant) tendencies still ruled.Kennedy had ambitions of introducing a "New Frontier" of social reform because he was concerned about discrimination and poverty and wanted to change things.Unfortunately he was largely occupied with the Cold War and Vietnam.On the 22nd,November 1963 he was shot dead during a tour of Dallas,Texas. -
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Lyndon B Johnson Is President Of The USA
Lyndon B. Johnson (November 22, 1963—January 20, 1969) -
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Malcolm X After Nation Of Islam and Assassination
Inspired by a 1964 a pilgrimage to Mecca, where he met white Moslems, Malcolm rejected the racist ideas of the NOI. He set up his own organisation, the Organisation of Afro-American Unity (OAAU), which aimed to unite all those of African descent and to promote their political, social and economic independence. He was assassinated by NOI gunmen in 1965 -
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Mississippi Freedom Summer
In 1964, civil rights organisations including CORE and SNCC organised a voter registration drive,known as Freedom Summer,aimed at increasing voter registration in Mississippi. It comprised of black Mississippians and over 1,000 out-of-state,predominately white volunteers they faced abuse and harassment from Mississippi’s whites.The KKK,police,state and local authorities carried out a series of violent attacks; including arson,beatings,false arrest and the murder of over 3 civil rights activists -
Civil Rights Act 1964
The Civil Rights Act,ended segregation in public places and banned employment discrimination on the basis of race,color, religion,sex or national origin is considered one of the legislative achievements of the civil rights movement.First proposed by Kennedy in June 1963,it survived opposition from southern members of Congress and was signed into law by Lyndon Johnson who said that the real hero of this struggle is the American Negro.68% of the public approved of the bill. -
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Berkley Free Speech Movement
The authorities of University of California tried to restrict the distribution of political literature and protests on campus.1000s of students occupied university's administration offices and police arrested 800+ protesters and evicted the rest.Mario Savio was the leader of Berkeley's FSM, as was Jack Weinberg who said YOU CAN'T TRUST ANYONE OVER 30.Many professors sympathised with the students,so after months of sit ins,protests and rallies the university gave in on the question of free speech -
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Anti-War Protests Spread Through Universities
In 1965 President Johnson escalated the US involvement in Vietnam when he sent in thousands of ground troops and bombed areas where there were Communists.In that same year, many universities held a "teach-in", with anti-war lectures and debates. 20,000 participated in Berkeley's teach-in and 8000 anti-war marchers, many from Berkeley, clashed with Oakland police and vandalised cars and buildings. -
Operation Rolling Thunder
In the spring of 1965 the US army launched operation Rolling Thunder,which was a series of sustained attacks and bombings over cities in North Vietnam.The attacks were brutal and many Vietnamese citizens and US soldiers died.It also cost millions of dollars.There was no clear victor.Many Americans began to question the war in Vietnam at this point.If the US government was sending 1000s of troops,millions of dollars and using brutal force at no avail,was there any point in continuing? -
Selma,Alabama
7th March 600 people marched from Selma to Montgomery,led by SCLC leaders to demand an end to discrimination in voter registration.At the Edmund Pettus Bridge,state and local lawmen attacked them with clubs and tear gas driving them back to Selma.Snakes were thrown at the protestors and a black youth was shot trying to protect his mother.This was known as Bloody Sunday. -
Reaction and Causes of Bloody Sunday,Selma
King had known that Sheriff Jim Clark would react violently as had Bull Connor and he chose Selma as "a symbol of bitter end resistance to the civil rights movement in the Deep South".Southern white brutality at Selma once more aroused nationwide sympathy for the civil rights movement.On the 9th of March King himself led a peaceful march in solidarity for the victims of Bloody Sunday.This prompted the Voting Rights Act -
Baby Boomers Come Of Age - Mid 1960s
Soon after members of the armed forces returned to the USA after World War II, an exceptional number of babies were born. These "baby boomers" came of age during the 1960s. The number of young people AND the proportion of young people who were students had risen greatly. The confidence to join in protests arose from:
1."safety in numbers"
2.not having a job to lose or a family to support
3.a period when many people were protesting. -
The Amount Of US Troops In Vietnam Doubles and Draft Dodging Begins
The VietCong were skilled in guerrilla warfare.The troops relied on new weapons and found that costly arms made little difference in the jungle.As more were sent to fight and soldiers died and told tales of desperacy and drug use amongst a demoralised army,the public protested.When Johnson2x the number of troops,more people were called up to fight.This was known as the draft and draft dodging became popular.Going to university,appealing on religious/moral grounds were methods of draft dodging -
The Term "Black Power" is coined by Carmichael
Upon reaching Greenwood, Mississippi on June 16, to join the Meredith March an enraged Carmichael said “We been saying ‘freedom’ for six years,” he said. “What we are going to start saying now is ‘Black Power.'”Carmichael explained the meaning of black power in his book: ”It is a call for black people in this country to unite, to recognize their heritage, to build a sense of community. It is a call for black people to define their own goals, to lead their own organizations.” -
Griswold v Connecticut- The Contraceptive Pill Can Be Given To Married Couples
In 1965 the Supreme Court ruled on a case concerning a Connecticut law that criminalized the use of birth control.Ruling that the states had no right to ban contraception for married couples,the case of Griswold v. Connecticut established a constitutional right to privacy regarding reproductive decisions that paved the way for the legalization of birth control for unmarried couples,and, Roe v. Wade.It signified the court’s belief that people should be free from the interference of the state. -
Voting Rights Act
Whilst the violence of Bloody Sunday was terrible,it helped LBJ to get the Voting Rights legislation passed through Congress because they brought the issue to national attention.This Act forbade literacy tests and similar as an entry onto the electoral register and allowed the federal government to investigate state voting systems to ensure that a fair system was in place.The number of elected black officials in the South increased six-fold 1965-1969 -
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Watts Riots- Los Angeles
In the Watts ghetto,racial tension climaxed after white policemen fought with a black driver suspected of speeding.Spectators watched and grew angry at the racist abuse.A riot began,urged by Watts residents who were bitter after years of poverty.Rioters ranged over 50sq miles,looting stores,torching buildings,and beating whites as snipers fired at police and firefighters.With the National Guardsmen,order was restored.The riots left 34 dead,1032 injured,4000 arrested,and 40m of property damage -
Stokely Carmichael Becomes Chairman of SNCC
In May 1966,Stokely Carmichael Became the national chairman of SNCC.He had been part of the Freedom Summer and sit ins and was very well educated having attended a "white"school and gaining a scholarship to Howard University.He had once favoured King's pacifist beliefs however he- and SNCC grew impatient and disillusioned.SNCC took a radical turn,no longer welcoming white members.He announced that he wanted black people to unite to changes his name together and reject hit society. -
Meredith March Against Fear Is Foiled By Sniper
James Meredith- the same man whom the NAACP helped to enrol at Mississippi University, planned a 220 mile walk from Memphis, Tennessee, to Jackson, Mississippi, to encourage blacks to show no fear and to vote.When he was shot on the second day of his walk, the black organisations declared that they would continue his walk for him. -
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Meredith March- Demonstration of Want For Equality-and of Black Divisions
After Meredith was shot,SCLC,King,SNCC,and Carmichael said they would complete the march for him.NAACP wanted the march to focus attention on a new civil rights bill and withdrew when Carmichael criticised the bill.Carmichael and SNCC didn't want white participants,King and SCLC welcomed them.Carmichael was arrested.Upon release,he urged the burning of every courthouse in Mississippi and demanded Black Power.While SNCC members chanted BLACK POWER,SCLC supporters responded with FREEDOM NOW -
SNCC Begins To Turn Towards Black Power
SNCC is an excellent example of the growing disillusionment amongst some African-Americans. By 1966, SNCC members were deeply resentful of the federal government, which had failed to give them protection during their Mississippi campaign. They elected a more militant leader, Stokely Carmichael, who brought the phrase "Black Power" to prominence in the Meredith March. -
Amount Of tROOPS iN vietnam Escalates
1966 -- President Johnson sent in over 200,000 US troops to fight the Communists and bombed the Communists in both North Vietnam in South Vietnam.This paled to Kennedy's 12,00 troops.This was all in the fight to keep the US funded democratic government in South Vietnam Running -
Hey,Hey LBJ How Many Kids Did You Kill Today?
"Hey,Hey LBJ How Many Kids Did You Kill Today",chanted protestors outside Johnson's office on Capitol Hill.Johnson had wanted his presidency to be focused on building a "Great Society" a Place without Poverty.However he couldn't give up on the Vietnam War so he instead escalated the fighting which resulted in backlash such as this -
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Summer 1966 Riots-Aftermath Of Watts Riots
All American ghettos had poor housing,poor schools and high unemployment.Across US,8% of whites were under the poverty line, vs 30% of blacks.18% of whites lived in substandard housing,vs 50% of non-whites.The black unemployment rate was 2x that of whites.
Some blamed all the ghetto riots 1964-1968 on unrealistic hopes raised by Johnson's promise of a Great Society in which poverty would be ended.In summer 1966 there were riots in 38 major cities,including Atlanta,Chicago and Philadelphia -
The National Organisation For Women Is Founded -1966
Equal Employment Opportunities Commission didn't enforce the gender provisions of the 1964 Civil Rights Act.Friedan established NOW.NOW wanted a constitutional amendment on gender equality (Equal Rights Amendment),equal access to education+employment,maternity leave,federally paid childcare+unlimited access to contraception+abortion.NOW's tactics:litigation,political pressure,information campaigns+protests.NOW helped women secure over $30 million in pay back from discriminatory employers -
Black Panthers Party Is Founded
Bobby Seale and Huey Newton established the Black Panthers in 1966.They felt that pacifist activists weren't doing enough and that it was time for blacks to stand up for themselves.They wanted separatism,end to police brutality,improvements in ghettos,compensation for slavery from federal govt,trials by black juries and exemption from military service.They became arevolutionary,Communist and violent group.There were only 2000 members but they were seen by the FBI as a threat to national security -
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Achievements Of Black Panthers
Black Panthers set up ghetto clinics to give advice on health,welfare,legal rights+ served up free breakfasts for the ghetto poor in LA,Followed police cars to show police brutality -led to shootouts,Surrounded+entered California state legislature-Sacramento,1967 in protest against repressive legislation,Engaged in petty crime,Sought confrontation with the police,Advocated killing the police,Gained police attention and were targeted+destroyed by police+FBI 1967-1969,Aroused pride in 64% of black -
Martin Luther King Speaks Out Against The Vietnam War
dMartin Luther King, Jr., head of SCLC,delivered a speech entitled “Beyond Vietnam” in front of 3,000 people at Riverside Church in NYC.In it,he said that there is a common link forming between the civil rights and peace movements.King proposed that the US stop all bombing of North and South Vietnam; declare a unilateral truce in the hope that it would lead to peace talks; set a date for withdrawal of all troops from Vietnam; and give the National Liberation Front a role in negotiations. -
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The National Mobilisation Committee To End The War In Vietnam
The Mobe was most active during 1967.The1st demonstrations were held April 15,NYC where 400000 protesters gathered in Central Park and walked to the UN,and in SanFran where 75000 rallied.Speakers in NY included Carmichael and King.October 21,150000 gathered in Washington to Confront the Warmakers.They marched to the Pentagon amidst 2500 federal troops and marshals and 700 arrests.The slogan HELL NO WE WON'T GO was coined as many students burned draft cards and tried to close down OaklandDraftHQ -
Kerner Commission
In 1967, Johnson established the Kerner Commission to investigate the causes of the annual ghetto riots. Along with social and economic deprivation, the Kerner Commission blamed white racism above all and said African Americans saw the police as "the occupying army of white America, a hostile power". 40% of those involved in ghetto riots claimed that they had been the victims of police abuse or discrimination. -
Hippies "Summer Of Love"
Some opted to not fight the system but simply opt out of it as a counterculture.Hippies usually took drugs,embraced free love,sex,peace and music.They often wore free flowing and brightly coloured clothes. The most famous hippy commune was at Haight Ashbury in San Francisco, which had a "Summer of Love" in 1967. Time Magazine estimated that there might have been over a quarter of a million hippies in the United States.In the 1969 Woodstock festival they coined the term:"Make Love Not War" -
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Second Year Of Aftermath Of Watts Riots
In 1967,rumours of police brutality against an black taxi driver led to an eruption in Newark,New Jersey. In 6 days of riots,26 died,1500 were injured,and the inner city was burned out.That triggered a riot in Detroit in which 40 died,2000 were injured 5000 were arrested,5000 were made homeless and Johnson had to send in federal troops to restore order.King said this was a class revolt of underprivileged against privileged and that the the main issue was economic. -
Anti-War Rallies In Over 30 Universties
On the 16th of October 1967, there were anti-war rallies in over 30 American Universities including New York,Boston and Atlanta.The protests formed part of "Stop the Draft Week" and were organised by a loose group calling themselves "The Resistance".The folk singer Joan Baez was amongst an group of protestors who were arrested in California -
Most Prominent Anti-Vietnam War Protest
On October 21, 1967, one of the most prominent anti-war demonstrations took place, as some 100,000 protesters gathered at the Lincoln Memorial; around 30,000 of them continued in a march on the Pentagon later that night. After a brutal confrontation with the soldiers and U.S. Marshals protecting the building, hundreds of demonstrators were arrested. -
Tet Offensive
On 31/1/1968,70000 North Vietnamese+VietCong launched the Tet Offensive,a coordinated series of attacks on over 100 cities in South Vietnam.General Vo Nguyen Giap leader of the Communist People’s Army of Vietnam,planned the offensive to form rebellion in the South Vietnamese population and encourage the US to scale back its support of the Saigon regime.Though the US managed to hold off the VietCong/North Vietnamese forces,there were heavy casualties on both sides and there was no clear victor. -
Protests Early 1968
The Tet Offensive sparked many protests. One of the first being the Columbia University protest which inspired similar occupations across the nation:
40,000 students are estimated to have participated in Anti-Vietnam war protests in Early 1968
56% of the 2179 bombings and attempted bombings between 1969 and 1970 involved students.
Protestors proudly burnt the American flag( a criminal offence). Many Of the rallies descended into violence between protestors and police. -
My Lai Massacre
In 1969,Time magazine broke a story which further shocked and appalled America.Bu this time the government was making plans to withdraw from the conflict.In March 1968,Lt William Calley and his colleagues walked into the village of My Lai and brutally killed and raped 450 unarmed civilians,many of whom were elderly,women or children because of rumores that the Viet Cong were hiding there.They tried to cover it up and managed to for over a year.Calley was subsequently imprisoned. -
Martin Luther King Is Assassinated
On April 4th 1968,U.S. civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated in Memphis,Tennessee.A Baptist minister and founder of SCLC, King had led the civil rights movement since the mid-1950s,using a combination of powerful words and non-violent tactics such as sit-ins, boycotts and protest marches (including the massive March on Washington in 1963) to fight segregation and achieve significant civil and voting rights advances for Blacks.Riots broke out in over 100 cities and 30 died. -
Columbia University Protests
An outbreak of protests occurred in spring 1968,starting at Columbia University.Columbia students protested because the university received federal funding for research that assisted the VietnamWar + workers from the black ghetto of Harlem would have to enter the new gym through a separate backdoor.Students occupied the college buildings,trashed the university president's office+held 3 officials hostage for 24 hours.Police clubbed spectators as well as troublemakers.Students then went on strike. -
Democratic Convention Chicago- Student Protests
In 1968,the Democratic Party met in Chicago to select their candidate for the presidential election.The Mobe+ protest groups urged youths to show their contempt for US politics by disrupting it. 30000 students responded to the call and Chicago Mayor Daley mobilised 12000 police and banned marches.Members of the Youth International Party produced their candidate for president,a pig that they christened Pigasus.Some threw bags of wee at police who removed their ID badges+retaliated with clubs+gas. -
Radical Feminism-Miss America Pageant
Radical Feminists declared that 'personal was political' and that women had no need for men at all.They called on feminists to become feminists saying,"A woman without a man dislike a fish without a bicycle'.In 1968,feminists protested at the Miss America pageant in Atlantic City.400 protestors gathered around the venue and chanted to show their contempt.They also had a 'freedom trash can' in which they threw,things that 'trapped' women such as bra's,curlers.They also crowned a sheep Miss World. -
Richard Nixon Becomes President
1968 was a year of chaos.Martin Luther King and Robert Kennedy had both been assasinated. The Tet Offensive had begun.When the Republicans met in Miami 4 had dies in unrelated rioting. The Democratic Convention had been the subject of student protest. Republican Richard Nixon was elected to the White House with a narrow victory. He declared he was standing for the "silent majority" and who wanted peace in their nation and abroad.So on 20th January 1969 was inaugurated -
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Richard Nixon Is President Of The USA
Richard Nixon (January 20, 1969—August 9, 1974) -
Nixon Extends War To Cambodia
On April 30th 1970,Nixon announced announced that the American government was invading Vietnam's Neighbour Cambodia in an attempt to remove Viet Cong who were sheltering there and that 150,000 more soldiers would be needed.Many people were furious with this.Nixon was in the process of withdrawing from Vietnam,so it seemed absurd to start yet another conflict.Over 58,000 Americans had died in Vietnam at the average age of 19,the public saw no need for more war. -
4 Students Killed At Kent State Ohio
When Nixon announced that the Vietnam War would be extended to Cambodia,+150000 soldiers were needed anti-war protests erupted in 80% of universities.The most famous clash occurred at Kent State,Ohio.Protesters launched a demonstration that included setting fire to the ROTC building,so the Governor dispatched 900 National Guardsmen.During an altercation on May 4,28 guardsmen opened fire, six hour battle with the police concluded with the death of 4 and the wounding of 9. -
Opposition To The Women's Movement
Opponents of ERA said it would ruin families and lead to unisex toilets.Family life was changing:The divorce rate 2x between 1960-1982,by which 40% of marriages ended in divorce.There were Supreme Court rulings in favour of equality(Roe v Wade),but that mobilised anti-abortion activists such as Catholic lawyer and mother of 6,Phyllis Schlafly,Sweetheart of the Silent Majority.She led campaigns against ERA and abortion.The conservative opposition was so strong that by 1982 ERA wasn't accepted -
The White House Plumbers
A White House Special Investigation Unit (the "Plumbers") was established by Nixon after federal employee Daniel Ellsberg leaked the Pentagon Papers, a collection of top secret government documents on the Vietnam War.Their job was to prevent further leakage of these papers.They had strong connections to CREEP -
White House Plumbers Break Into Ellsberg's Psychiatrist's Office
E. Howard Hunt and Gordon Liddy ( White House Plumbers) were employed by the Committee to Re-elect the President (CREEP) to break-in to the office of Daniel Ellsberg's psychiatrist in order to get some "dirt" to discredit Ellsberg. -
Committee To Re-Elect The President
Nixon feared that he would not win the 1972 presidential election because his conduct of the Vietnam War had made him unpopular, so CREEP was set up.CREEP was involved in:criminal surveillance especially illegal wiretapping,political subversion,illegal fundraising
Gordon Liddy was in charge of CREEP's surveillance.His suggestions as to how to win the election included:electronic eavesdropping,kidnapping opponents,disrupting Democrat meetings,employing prostitutes to tempt Democrat delegates. -
Eisenstadt v Baird-Contraceptives are legal for Unmarried Couples
William Baird gave out contraceptives to a woman after his Boston University lecture on birth control.Massachusetts charged him with a felony,of distributing contraceptives to an unmarried person.Only married couples could get contraceptives;only registered doctors could give them.Baird wasn't.The Court struck down the Massachusetts law on the grounds that the distinction between single and married people didn't satisfy the rational basis test of the 14th Amendment's Equal Protection Clause -
Election Campaign Act
Election campaign Act 1971- Amended 1976.The Act had been set up by Nixon to limit the amount that parties spent on election campaigns.This act put limits on campaign contributions due to reports of great financial abuses in the 1972 presidential election campaign.It was amended post-Watergate to make it tighter and to ensure that groups like CREEP could not hold any power in the future -
The 1st Watergate Break In
In May 1972,members of CREEP broke into the Democratic National Committee’s Watergate headquarters,stole copies of top-secret documents and bugged the office’s phones.The wiretaps failed to work properly, however, so on June 17 the group returned to the Watergate building.This was orchestrated by CREEP's head of Surveillance,Gordon Liddy.Liddy organised the two break-ins of the DNC headquarters in the Watergate building in Washington in 1972. -
2nd Watergate Break In
The wiretaps which had been placed by CREEP in the DNC,were faulty.Gordon Liddy and E.Howard Hunt sent 5 people to bug the place again.A security guard discovered them wiretapping phones and stealing documents.The burglars,Hunt and Liddy were arrested with large amounts of money.The FBI traced the money to CREEP.Nixon and White House Chief of staff Bob Haldeman discussed using CIA to stop the FBI investigating the Plumbers.When the CIA refused, Nixon tried to pay the burglars to keep quiet. -
Deep Throat Leaks To Washington Post Reporters
Washington Post reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein began investigating the Watergate scandal.They got information from Associate FBI Director Mark Felt,"Deep Throat".Who was angered by the Nixon administration's attempt to cover up the break in.This was done after Nixon had won a landslide victory and was in his second term. -
Watergate Court Case and Aftermath
The White House Plumbers were convicted.Ex CIA Hunt was given 33 months in prison and Liddy was given 20 years.Nixon made a public apology for the Watergate break in but denied all knowledge. White House chief of staff Bob Haldeman and Nixon's domestic affairs adviser John Ehrlichman resigned,and White House Counsel John Dean was fired after he confessed he had discussed the cover-up with President Nixon at least 35 times. -
Further Investigation Into The Watergate Scandal
May -- The bipartisan Senate Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities began hearings on the Watergate scandal.Congress forced Nixon to appoint the Democrat Archibald Cox as a special prosecutor to investigate the scandal. -
Tapes Are Found
In July 1973 a White House aide revealed that Nixon recorded all conversations in the Oval Office.Cox demanded that Nixon hand over the tapes of these recordings,so that it could be found out whether Nixon had known about the Watergate break-in -
Cox is Sacked and Vice President Agnew Resigns
Nixon sacked Cox and abolished his office, an action that was constitutional but politically unwise.This was an attempt to be able to not give over the tapes.
Also Nixon's Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned because of tax evasion and acceptance of bribes and Gerald Ford was nominated as vice president. -
War Powers Act
War Powers Act, law passed by the U.S. Congress on November 7, 1973, over the veto of Pres. Richard Nixon.The act sought to restrain the president’s ability to commit U.S. forces overseas by requiring them to consult with and report to Congress before involving U.S. forces in wars.Widely considered a measure for preventing “future Vietnams,”.This was a result of the Vietnam War. The act aimed to check the power of the president to get the United States into war. -
Tapes Are Handed Over -With a 18 and 1/2 Minute Gap
The president's approval rating had sunk to 17%, so he appointed Leon Jaworski as special prosecutor.The House Judiciary Committee gave Jaworski $1 million to hire staff for an impeachment investigation and the president agreed to surrender some tapes.
7 tapes were handed over but there was a 18.5 minute gap in a Nixon-Haldeman conversation.Nixon's devoted secretary Rose Mary Woods said she had accidentally deleted the 18.5 minutes,but an expert testified that the tapes had been tampered with. -
Congressional Budget Act
The 1974 Congressional Budget and Impoundment Act created a set of institutional changes designed to help Congress regain power over the budget process. The Act was inspired by Richard Nixon's refusal to pay $12 billion of congressionally-appropriated funds in 1973-74 through the executive power of impoundment, as well as more generalized fears about the budget deficit. The president now had to account for all the money that was used. -
The Tapes Are Handed Over-And It's Not Looking Good
The Supreme Court ruled unanimously in USA v Nixon that he had to hand over the original tapes.The House Judiciary Committee passed articles of impeachment. They said that the president should be impeached on 3 grounds:
He had obstructed justice by participating in the cover-up.
He had abused power by invading the civil rights of individuals(Ellsberg),by misuse of government agencies(CIA,FBI), and by authorising wiretapping.
He had abused Congress by ignoring the Judiciary Committee's demands. -
President Richard Nixon Resigns
On the 9th of August Richard Nixon resigned as the 37th President of the USA.He was the 1st President to ever resign.He wrote,"As President ,I must put the interests of America first,"as he resigned.31 officials were blamed for Watergate. President Gerard Ford,pardoned Nixon one month after his resignation. -
Privacy Act
The purpose of the Privacy Act is to balance the government's need to maintain information about individuals with the rights of individuals to be protected against unwarranted invasions of their privacy stemming from federal agencies' collection, maintenance, use, and disclosure of personal information.This meant that US Citizens could now see files held on them by the government.