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The Congress of Vienna (1814–1815) was a meeting of European powers to restore borders and balance after Napoleon’s defeat. -
Battle of Waterloo (1815): Final defeat of Napoleon by European allies, ending his rule. -
Louis XVIII (1815–1824): Restored Bourbon king of France after Napoleon’s fall. -
Spanish Liberal Biennium (1820–1823): A brief period of liberal rule in Spain after a military uprising. -
Charles X (1824–1830): Last Bourbon king of France, overthrown in the 1830 Revolution. -
Independence of Belgium (1830): Belgium separated from the Netherlands and became an independent kingdom. -
Louis Philippe (1830–1848): Known as the “Citizen King,” he ruled after Charles X and was overthrown in the 1848 revolution. -
Independence of Greece (1830): Greece gained independence from the Ottoman Empire after a long war. -
The Zollverein (1834): A customs union formed by German states to promote economic unity and free trade. -
France Second Republic (1848–1852): Republican government established after the 1848 revolution, before Napoleon III’s empire. -
Revolution of 1848 (Spring of Nations): A series of uprisings across Europe, driven by demands for democratic reforms and national independence. -
France’s Second Empire (1852–1870): Period when Napoleon III ruled as emperor, following the collapse of the Second Republic. -
Battles of Magenta and Solferino (1859): Key victories for France and Sardinia against Austria, leading to the unification of Italy. -
Victor Emmanuel II, King of Italy (1861): Became the first king of unified Italy after the country’s unification. -
Garibaldi conquered the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (1860): Giuseppe Garibaldi led a successful campaign to capture southern Italy, helping unify the country. -
Danish-Prussian War (1864): A conflict where Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark, gaining control of Schleswig and Holstein. -
Austrian-Prussian War (1866): A conflict between Prussia and Austria, leading to Prussia’s victory and the exclusion of Austria from German affairs. -
French-Prussian War (1870–1871): A war between France and Prussia, which led to France's defeat and the unification of Germany under Kaiser Wilhelm I. -
Wilhelm I, Kaiser of the Second German Reich (1871): Became the first emperor of the unified German Empire after the defeat of France.