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The Hundred Years' War, spanning 1337 to 1453, reshaped European politics, fostering the transition from feudalism to centralized nation-states and influencing military and governance structures.
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The Renaissance began at the end of the 13th century -
Dante Alighieri's epic poem, the "Divine Comedy," not only shaped Italian literature and language through its use of the Tuscan dialect but also had a profound cultural impact, influencing Renaissance thinkers and contributing to the emergence of a unified Italian identity. -
ohannes Gutenberg's invention of the printing press around 1440 transformed culture by enabling the widespread dissemination of knowledge, literature, and art, contributing to the democratization of information during the Renaissance.
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The High Renaissance, spanning from the 1490s to 1527, epitomized cultural brilliance with masterpieces by artists like Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael, showcasing the pinnacle of classical art ideals.
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Nicolaus Copernicus's heliocentric model, presented in "On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres" (1543), sparked the Scientific Revolution, challenging the geocentric worldview and laying the groundwork for advancements in astronomy and physics during the Renaissance. -
The Age of Exploration, from the 15th to 17th centuries, marked a transformative period with maritime expeditions, contributing to economic shifts through global trade, the rise of mercantilism, and cultural exchanges that shaped societies across continents.
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The Peace of Westphalia, ending the devastating Thirty Years' War, established key principles such as state sovereignty and religious tolerance, laying the foundation for the modern state system and international law. -
The Renaissance came to an end at the end of the 16th century. -
The Scientific Revolution, occurring in the 16th to 17th centuries, marked a transformative period with figures like Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, and Newton challenging medieval views, establishing the groundwork for modern scientific inquiry.