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The Battle of Actium was a large naval battle that occurred between Octavian against Mark Antony and Cleopatra. After this battle both Mark Antony and Cleopatra died, leaving Octavian as the sole ruler of Rome, establishing his power. -
Augustus held the first census of the population of the Roman Empire. He did this as he passed a series of measures to secure his order in Roman lands and control the revised Roman government system, the principate.
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The Theatre of Marcellus was begun by Julius Caesar, but was finally completed by Augustus in 13 BC. Augustus had the name dedicated to his nephew Marcus Claudius Marcellus who had died in 23 BC. Parts of this theatre are still standing today and the doric and ionic columns are still intact. -
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Augustus made Tiberius divorce his wife and marry his daughter Julia. This meant that Tiberius would be an heir upon Julia’s two sons' deaths. By marrying Augustus’ daughter, he was securing his line to power.
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pon his peaceful death in 14 AD, the Roman senate declared him, like Julius Caesar, to be a god. His adopted son Tiberius assumed the role of emperor.
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Included Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius I, and Nero
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The death of his son made Tiberius more drawback from the role of emperor. He was known for his indecisiveness and unpopularity with the senate and citizens.
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Tiberius never returned to Rome, leaving to live in Capri till his death. His indifference led him to leave more and more power in his advisor, Senjanus, and participate in less matters of the state.
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Tiberius betrayed his advisor Senjanus, who he had chosen after the Senate had turned against him earlier in his rule. Senjanus had killed the remaining part of Germanicus’ family, but Caligula, Germanicus’ youngest son, was not killed. Tiberius turned against Senjanus after he was trying to claim power in Rome. The Senate killed Senjanus and threw his body into the Tiber River. Caligula was now next in line for the throne.
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Tiberius had participated in a traditional game, hurt his shoulder, and fell into a coma. When doctors examined him and claimed he would not survive the day, they called for his named successor, Caligula. However, he survived and regained consciousness. A member of the Praetorian guard smothered him with his sheets to avoid confusion.
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He led his troops through Gaul where towns, people, and villages were robbed and raided. They then marched to the northern border, to the present day English channel, with the intention of invading Britain. Instead, he just had them collect seashells.
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Caligula called for a statue to be made at the temple at Jerusalem in an attempt claim divinity. The Roman population began to become wary of his rule, claiming he was tyrannic, and conspired against him. Many people believed he had gone mad after a short period of illness following his succession.
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Months after his return from Gaul, members of the Praetorian guard murdered Caligula at the Palatine Games. His wife and daughter were also put to death. His uncle, Claudius, succeeded him.
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At the Start of his rule, Claudius banished Jews from Rome for the third time. The first time was in 139 BC and then in 19 AD. Roman Jews were not able to meet in synagogues and Claudius declared this in his letter, Letter to Alexandria, and warned of wrath upon them.
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Upon Caligula’s death, Claudius was found by the Praetorian Guard and pronounced him emperor. Physical disabilities, his speech impediment and limp, made his family believe he would never be emperor. The senate held out for two days before letting him ascend to power.
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Claudius needed to gain popularity and to do this, invaded Britain in 43 AD. Claudius wanted to finish Julius Caesar’s “invasions” of 55 BC, which was really just political propaganda to gain popularity. Claudius had the invasion led by Aulus Plautius. The Romans gained control of southeastern England. This was the most important addition since Augustus was in power.
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Nero had large amounts of policy reformation, these included ending the policy of secret trials being held, making capital punishment illegal, and giving more rights to slaves. He instilled policy reform to help change unfair rules created by previous emperors.
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Claudius was poisoned by Agrippina who feared Britanicus would be named as successor rather than Nero.
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Nero’s mother arranged for Claudius’ daughter Octavia to marry her son to push aside the emperor’s son. In 54 AD, his mother, Agrippina, secured his power by poisoning Claudius and allowed him to ascend the throne at 17.
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The first systematic persecution of Christian began under Nero in 64 AD. Persecutions had been happening since Jesus’s death, but Nero made their persecution officially endorsed by the Roman government. Nero ended up blaming the Great Fire on the Christians to further spread the prejudice and prosecutions and create more justification for the movement. -
The Great Fire of Rome lasted for a week, six days and an additional night. 10 of the 14 districts of Rome were destroyed. The fire started at the shops near the Circus Maximus. Nero had blamed the Christians for the fire, fires were not uncommon at this time. -
Galba (June 68- Jan 69), Otho (Jan 69- April 69), Vitellius (April 69-Dec 69), Vespasian (Dec 69-79)
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Believing Nero was planning an assassination during his governorship of Nearer Spain, he led a rebellion against him. His rebellion with legions from spain and other regions encouraged the imperial guard to desert Nero, leading to his suicide and Galba’s march on Rome to be named emperor.
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After the senate condemned him to death by crucifixion and his guard abandoned him, Nero committed suicide.
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Resentment towards Galba built as he demanded tributes from his conquered people. However, he did not spend this money on his own troops. A lack of loyalty grew among his men.
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He was known for sentencing citizens to death with little evidence or trial. This was one of the reasons resentment grew towards his rule.
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Included Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius I, and Nero
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Ended with Vespasian (Dec 69-79)
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The rule of Vespasian and his sons, Titus and Domintian
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Otho had joined forces with Galba to march to Rome and overthrow Nero. After Otho had not been adopted by Galba so that he could become the heir, he got the Praetorian Guard to kill Galba in the Forum. After Galba’s death, he claimed the throne.
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Due to the lack of loyalty, the praetorian guard was bribed by Otho to murder Otho, who considered himself the rightful heir. This began the Year of the Four Emperors.
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While attempting to reinstate the will of the people, he reinstituted the gladiatorial games. The games were a source of entertainment for the people and a large part of Roman culture. -
Otho also completed Nero’s golden palace, a large piece of land in the center of Rome, and restored the fallen statues of Nero and Poppaea. -
Vitellius, whom many considered the rightful successor to the position, began to march towards Rome. Otho and his army clashed at Bedriacum; however, Otho lost and committed suicide.
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Armies of Lower Germany favored Vitelius to succeed Galba; However, Otho took the throne. He sent half of his army to Rome when he heard of Galba’s death and confronted Otho. Upon Otho’s suicide after their batttle, he assumed the throne.
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Vitellius was known for killing and torturing at the slightest inconvenience. In his position as emperor, he became less caring or humane.
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Before assuming the throne, Vitellius had accumulated a large debt. When collectors and dealers demanded payment upon his return to Rome, he used his position to ignore these demands. Stil, he never abandoned his lavish spending habits which led to disdain in the army.
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At the second battle of Bedriacum, Vitellius fought with Vespasian’s army after a failed treaty. His army was defeated, he was captured, and he was dragged through the streets of Rome. His body was then thrown in the Tiber River.
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Vespasian was previously the Governor of Judea. Many of Vitellius’ people began to swear their allegiance to him. When an attempted treaty, pushed by Vitellius failed, Vespasian and his army clashed with the emperor at Bedriacum where his victory secured his ascension.
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The construction of the Colosseum began over the site of Nero’s Golden House east of Palatine Hill. Vespian wanted to give this as a gift to the Roman people. Another name for the Colosseum is the Flavian Amphitheater because Vespian was the first emperor of the Flavian dynasty. -
Vespasian restored Rome and its army by raising the taxes of various regions. He would double tributes, sell pardons, and reclaim public land for revenue. Much of this money went towards construction projects such as the building of the Colosseum.
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A successful military campaign of Titus occured in 70 AD. He took over and destroyed the temple in Jerusalem and defeated the Jewish rebels. When he got back to Rome, he was rewarded with becoming the leader of the Praetorian Guard and leading the military under Vespasian.
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Vespasian became sick at the age of 69 from a previous fever and chill. His son Titus would succeed him, followed by his second son, Domitian.
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By establishing his abilities during his father’s reign, the transition of power was peaceful. Many feared his succession due to the violence of his father’s succession, so he was not favored by the citizens in the beginning of his rule. He later gained favor through his generosity and successes.
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In 80, the Colosseum’s construction was finished under Titus’ rule. He held the inaugural games. These games lasted 100 days and included events such as gladiator fights, mock naval battles, animal fights, and various races.
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At Sabine Hill, Titus caught a fever in 81 AD, possibly caused by Malaria. His brother Domitian returned to Rome ready to claim the throne. Some believe Domitian had poisoned Titus in order to ascend the throne.
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Dominitian, the second son of Vespasian, had a guaranteed position in the line of succession to emperor after Titus. Even before Titus’ death, Domitian quickly returned to Rome to claim the position of emperor. Rumors later emerged that he possibly had a part of Titus’ death.
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Domitian commissioned the building of the Arch of Titus, losley accredited to his favorite architect Rabirirus. This is located on the Via Sacra and depicts the 71 AD Roman victory of the fall of Jerusalem. -
Domitian built himself the Palace of Domitian in 92, which served as his official residence, located on Palatine Hill. He was obsessed with his own power and may have used architecture to show his power. The palace had a residential area along with its own stadium. Domitian was said to take walks along the stadium and seven laps equated to a Roman mile.
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Ending with Domintian
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Nerva (reigned 96–98 ce), Trajan (98–117), Hadrian (117–138), Antoninus Pius (138–161), and Marcus Aurelius (161–180)
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A group of conspirators, including a member of his staff, organized a plan to kill the emperor when they heard they were on a “list”. Stephanus, a staff member, hid a dagger in a bandage on his arm and stabbed Domitian unexpectedly. The other conspirators beat him to death. Many people were happy when they heard the news of his death and turned over statues and arches made for him.
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He was the first emperor to rule in a period known as the Five Good Emperors. He earned this title by creating social change including no senators being put to death, ending treason trials, and granting amnesty to previously exiled people.
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Nerva had served as consul twice in 71 and 90, showing his dedication and commitment to ruling in Rome. Upon Domitian’s death, he was immediately selected as a temporary replacement as Domitian left no heirs. He was considered old and presented a different ruling style to his predecessor, making him the best candidate.
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Nerva changed the policies of taxation against Jews. He removed the additional tax that all Jews in the empire had to pay. Some of the coins minted during his reign have a saying showing that he abolished this tax.
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Nerva suffered a stroke three weeks before his death at his villa in the Gardens of Sallust. His ashes were placed at the Mausoleum of Augustus and the senate voted on his deification.
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His experience as a commander of the army, a senator, and the governor of Upper Germany led him to gain the favor of Nerva. Nerva named him as his successor, making him one of the emperors to receive this honor outside of a bloodline.
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Trajan built the first bridge across the Danube river in 103, called the Trajan Bridge. This bridge was created to keep a supply line between the conquered people of Dacia. The bridge had to span half a mile across the river and was destroyed by a later emperor -
Trajan also built Trajan’s Column, with construction beginning in 106. This is a 125 foot marble doric column originally meant to tell about the military campaigns and success of Trajan in Dacia. The column’s top has gone through a few renovations over the years. The first statue at the top was a bronze eagle, then after Trajan’s death a statue of him was placed on top, and since 1588 a statue of St. Peter has been on the top. -
Trajan died peacefully after he became sick in 117 AD. He was succeeded by his cousin once removed, Hadrian. His ashes were placed in the Mausoleum of Augustus and was deified.
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Hadrian previously served as Tribune under Nerva. Later, he led military campaigns under Trajan. Despite never being named his successor, Trajan’s wife signed the papers of succession with the understanding of Trajan’s respect for Hadrian.
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Hadrian built a 73 mile long wall from coast to coast across Britain to set the north western frontier of the Empire. This wall had many uses for the Roman Empire, mainly trade, communication, and defense. Hadrian was known for traveling around the empire and making improvements, this wall was one of his greatest legacies. -
Hadrian’s tour around the Roman Empire reached a climax upon his arrival in Greece in 124 AD. Here he participated in the Eleusinian Mysteries, a popular cult, revised their constitution, and organized various construction projects of public buildings and roads. His travels here were recorded by the temple built here under his rule and statues dedicated to him in honor.
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Hadrian died of a heart attack. His ashes were later placed in the Tomb of Hadrian, which was built by Antonius Pius. Temples were built in his honor once he was deified.
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Hadrian had appointed Antonius to serve as an advisor and assist with judicial administration during his reign. In 138 AD, he adopted Antonius to make him his successor.
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Antonius’s wife, Faustina, died in late 140 or early 141. In her honor, he founded the Puellae Faustiniaenea, a charity for the daughters of the poor.
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Antonius Pius ordered the Antonine Wall to be built by the Roman army. It crossed Scotland as one of the barriers in Britain. It extended 36.5 miles; however, it was later abandoned as the army returned to Hadrian's Wall in the 160s. -
Antonius died at an ancestral home in Etruria where he died of sickness and old age. His body was buried in Hadrian’s mausoleum and deified Antoninus.
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Hadrian had arranged upon adopting Antonius Pius that Antonius would adopt two other men, one being Marcus Aurelius. He had served as an apprentice under Antonius during his reign which led him to be prepared when he ascended to the throne.
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Marcus wrote down his ideas in private notes to himself, including his thoughts on Stoic philosophy during his reign of the Roman Empire. It was written without an intended audience similar to journaling and reflection due to his distance from Roman culture and intellectual life.
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The Marcomannic Wars was a series of wars lasting from 166 to 180 AD. The Roman Empire faced attacks from Germanic tribes mainly along the Danube River. The attempts of invasion were -
Ended with Marcus Aurelius
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Aurelius died of unknown causes. He has deified and his ashes were placed in Hadrian’s mausoleum. His legacy and memory is praised years after his death through his actions and Meditations.
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