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A period in Europe when agricultural progress was made and the fallow field was eliminated. Began to plant different crops to replenish lost nitrogen in the soil. Scientific discovery was now important for improvements. Made better feed for animals and had more fodder for winter to build up more herds of animals. More meat was now available for people which gave them a better diet. This in turn increased the birth rate and lowered the mortality because of famine.
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A new group of Experimental Scientists began to find new ways to optimize farming:
Cornelius Vermuyden directed drainage projects by converting wetlands into the most fertile farming land in England
Charles Townsend promoted growing turnips as livestock feed and other nitrogen-rich produce in fields to promote healthy soil. Also disapproved of maturing soil as fertilizer.
Jethro Tull used horses instead of slow-moving oxen for plowing and invented a seed drill for planting. -
Jean-Baptise Colbert encouraged more guilds to develop in order to promote high-quality production of goods and collect more taxes. The number of guilds in Paris from 1672 to 1691 grew from 60 to 129. They restricted members to local mem who were good Christians, had work experience, and paid fees. However, most guilds were still hostile to women and did not accept them. A few, on the other hand, did for positions like textile workers and needlework positions.
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Push to take former publicly owned common land to now be private farming land by fencing, or "enclosing", it. They started doing this in order to begin experimenting with new methods for farming. Large landowners that controlled parliament passed hundreds of "enclosure acts" that authorized much fencing, disorganizing previous village life. Peasants had to pay heavy costs for legal and surveying fees pushed onto them by upper-class people.
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Many people began to manufacture products with hand tools in their cottages and work sheds. This became a crucial part of the growing economy. They now produced materials on a large enough scale to sell on the market.
Organized through the putting-out system: involved merchant capitalist and rural worker. Merchant loaned raw materials to workers who processed and then returned them to the merchant for sale. -
The disappearance of the black death, invention of a preventative smallpox medication, improvements in sewage and water supply, and drainage of swaps that reduced insect population are among some of the causes of a population boom during this time. The ability to transport crops to far distances lessened the impact of local crop failure that had previously led to famine allowed the population to rise above previous numbers. The death rate as this time went down, while the birth rate increased.
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Mercantilism was a system of economic regulations that created a favorable balance of trade between colonies and their mother country. Much competition began to develop between European colonizing nations, so wars erupted. As they're now big rivals, France and England went through the War of Spanish Succession, War of Austrian Succession, and 7 years war--ending with England monopolizing a vast trading empire, taking much French and other European nation's territory.
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This was a new belief that free trade and competition would benefit all individuals, rich and poor. Adam Smith developed this idea along with the "invisible hand" of free competition. He criticized guilds for outmoded restrictions and promoted limited government, saying they should only: provide defense, maintain civil order, and sponsor non-profitable public works. These new ideas laid the foundations for modern-day economics.
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The forced migration of Africans across the Atlantic for slave labor reached its peak in the 18th century. At this time, 80,000 slaves were shipped each year. This was likely caused by the rise of plantation agriculture. From this, Africans gained access to European produced goods (including guns) which led to much warfare on the African continent.
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The shift that occurred as families focused on earning wages instead of producing goods for household consumption. This in turn reduced their economic self-sufficiency but increased their ability to purchase consumer goods. Families reduced leisure time, stepped up work pace, and women and children began getting waged jobs. This created a household where everyone earned wages for the home.
