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European nations such as Britain, France, and Portugal profited from the transatlantic trade of enslaved peoples, raw materials, and manufactured goods. This fueled industrial growth and created immense wealth for port cities. It marked economic change through global trade networks and colonial expansion. However, social continuity persisted in Europe’s racial hierarchies. -
Philosophers promoted reason, individual rights, and economic freedom. The Wealth of Nations argued for capitalism and free markets over mercantilism. This was a major intellectual and social change, encouraging economic individualism and challenging absolute monarchy. However, Enlightenment ideas often excluded lower classes and women which reflects social continuity in inequality. -
British Parliament passed Enclosure Acts that consolidated small farms into large privately owned plots. This improved agricultural efficiency and output but it also displaced many rural workers. This represented economic change by encouraging commercial farming and pushing people toward urban jobs. It also reinforced social continuity because landownership remained concentrated among the wealthy. -
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New farming techniques such as crop rotation, the seed drill, and selective breeding transformed agriculture in Europe. These innovations increased food production and supported population growth. This marked a major change from the subsistence based farming of previous times. However, the social structure of land ownership remained continuous, keeping peasants dependent on elites. -
Economic growth in trade, industry, and Enlightenment ideals expanded the middle class in Europe. This group valued education, property, and self-improvement. It symbolized social change by challenging aristocratic dominance and promoting merit. However, continuity existed in that wealth and social status still determined power and privilege. -
Increased trade and industrial output led to greater access to goods like tea, sugar, and textiles. This shift created a change in social behavior as consumerism became a status symbol for the middle class. The growth of shops and fashion reflected a new economic dynamism. Continuity remained in that luxury consumption was still associated with wealth and class distinction. -
The development of steam power, mechanized spinning, and iron production in Britain launched the Industrial Revolution. This completely transformed production methods and the European economy. It represented a massive change from manual to machine labor, thus leading to urban working classes. Continuity remained in the exploitation of workers and economic inequality. -
As industrial production expanded, more Europeans moved from rural villages to cities in search of work. Urban centers also grew rapidly. This represented a social and economic change from agrarian to urban life. Yet, poverty, disease, and poor living conditions continued, showing continuity in inequality. -
The French Revolution challenged centuries old social hierarchies and economic inequality. It got rid of feudal privileges and called for equality. This marked social and economic change as the old order was replaced by modern political and social ideals. However, the persistence of inequality after the Revolution showed continuity in social struggles. -
Before factories, merchants began outsourcing textile production to rural families who worked from home. This expanded the rural economy and allowed women and children to contribute to the family income. It reflected economic change toward capitalism and consumer production. Still, social continuity existed in gender roles.