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spraying chemicals eg. Agent Orange and Blue. purpose -> defoliate jungles & remove the cover the enemy exploited from it. This was sprayed over crops in an effort to deprive the enemy of food. The overall outcome was to further alienate Vietnamese peasants whose crops and livelihoods were destroyed while the guerrillas carried on Also pineapple bombs- an indiscriminate weapon which caused thousands of pellets to explode
another indiscriminate weapon = napalm -
aims:
- achieve a quick victory without major escalation in Vietnam via armed reconnaissance strikes & graduated military response against the North
- Great Society -
established direct communication 24/7 between USA & USSR to prevent anything happening like the CMC
symbolised a new spriti of cooperation
however, it wasn't used until the 1967 6 day war -
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prohibited all test detonations of nuclear weapons except for those conducted underground
collective agreement into effect on 10 October 1963
USA-USSR-UK: ban on tests in atmosphere, outer space and underwater
treaty called partial as it didnt include underground tests
HOWEVER, Tests continued underground, France and China continued to test bombs in pacific until 1990s treaty demonstrated that they understood the dangers of nuclear tech & were willing to limit their usage of nuclear weapon -
concluded that neither US or USSR can emerge from a full scale nuclear exchange without suffering very severe damage & high casualties
estimate of 93mil casualties if engagement did occur
= creation of MAD & stronger emphasis towards nuclear equality = marked the start of nuclear agreements -
More than 200,000 people of all races congregated in Washington, D. C. for the peaceful march with the main purpose of forcing civil rights legislation and establishing job equality for everyone. The highlight of the march was King’s speech in which he continually stated, “I have a dream…” King’s “I Have a Dream” speech galvanized the national civil rights movement and became a slogan for equality and freedom.
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The Soviet Politburo increases its support to North Vietnam, sending aircraft, artillery, ammunition, small arms, radar, air defense systems, food and medical supplies. Meanwhile, China sends several engineering troops to North Vietnam to assist in building critical defense infrastructure.
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rejected by KH, however his resignation later on put decisions to Brezhnev, who intially advocated to restoring rs w china particularly due to usa's growing involvement in vietnam however, this attempt failed due to the malovinsky incident:
- malovinsky suggested to get rid of mao which immediately collapsed talks -
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an international confrontation led US engaging more directly in the Vietnam War. US forces were carrying out covert amphibious operations close to NV territorial waters = triggered a response by NV forces. US gov falsely claimed that a second incident occurred on 4 aug between NV & US ships in the waters of the Gulf of Tonkin. Originally, US military claims blamed North Vietnam for the confrontation and the ostensible, but in fact imaginary, incident on August 4.
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presented LBJ with the power to take any necessary action to resist any armed attacks on US forces in Vietnam & prevent any further aggression. In effect, this gave LBJ absolute freedom to conduct whatever policy he wanted in Vietnam without consulting Congress confirmed his freedom to escalate US role in Vietnam
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This test makes China the world's 5th nuclear power
Project 596 -
Vietcong attack on an army barracks & US helicopter base in Pleiku which was followed by further attacks- triggered Operation Rolling Thunder
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1st significant engagement in Ia Drang Valley - a conventional battle
USA = 300 dead
NV - 2-3k fatalities
both sides saw the battle as a victory, US due to high enemy casualty figure & NV bc they held up their position
this battle made General Nguyen Giap (commander of NV forces) realise he needed an alternative strategy to combat US military superiority -
President Johnson calls for 50,000 more ground troops to be sent to Vietnam, increasing the draft to 35,000 each month
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April
USSR requested a meeting w China & NV to develop a collective response towards USA's escalation
- proposed to establish a soviet air force in south china to protect sino-vietnamese border against us aggression proposal met w resistance from china, meeting never took place
mao believed ussr = imperialist, military intrusion in chinese territory
mao wanted NV to remain dependent on china, and he did not want to facilitate any more soviet involvement in vietnam war -
LBJ orders the bombing of targets in North Vietnam in Operation Flaming Dart in retaliation for a Viet Cong raid at the U.S. base in the city of Pleiku and at a nearby helicopter base at Camp Holloway.
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A bombing campaign that marked the start of the Americanisation of the war & escalation of US involvement
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John Hopkins Uni (Baltimore)
Peace without Conquest
April 1965, Johnson gave this televised address at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, to explain why the United States was fighting in Vietnam. Like his predecessors, Johnson presented the conflict in Vietnam as a major test of American determination to stop the spread of aggression. He compared the war to the actions taken by the United States to protect Europe during and after World War II. -
- US troops must withdraw from SV in accordance w Geneva
- neither NV & SV may enter into any military alliance w a foreign power during the temporary division of Vietnam, in accordance w Geneva
instead ordered 2 marine battalions 20k troops & air squadron -
LBJ publicly announced his decision to escalate the USA's military role. By July 1965, USA deployed 75k ground troops in Vietnam Ground troops:
1965- 184,310
1966- 385,300
1967- 485,600
1968- 536k the escalation that LBJ initiated strengthened the resolve of the North Vietnamese leaders to continue the revolution in the South -
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designed to restore ideological correctness
enabled mao to strenghten his power by justifying the elimination of 'revisionist' rivals
intended to return china to its revolutionary communist roots = attacks on anything remotely western -
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By November 1967, American troop strength in Vietnam was approaching 500,000 and U.S. casualties had reached 15,058 killed and 109,527 wounded. The Vietnam War was costing the United States some $25 billion per year, and disillusionment was beginning to reach greater sections of the taxpaying public.
Under the draft system of conscription, as many as 40,000 young men (19) were called into service every month, adding fuel to the fire of the antiwar movement. -
in response to increasing hostility from china
the build up of soviet forces on the sino-soviet frontier alarmed the chinese and reinforced their view that the USSR intended to attack
= new strategy adopted by china; 'active defence', based on limited aggression to deter any soviet initial aggression -
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On October 21, 1967, one of the most prominent antiwar demonstrations took place as some 100,000 protesters gathered at the Lincoln Memorial—around 30,000 of them continued in a march on the Pentagon later that night Also in 1967, the antiwar movement got a big boost when MLK Jr. went public with his mora; opposition to the war, condemning the war’s diversion of federal funds from domestic programs & negating black civil rights
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a charismatic advocate of political reform
called for a new start to socialism
did actions unilaterally without consulting soviets eg/ replacing key officials with those who wanted reform
eliminated press censorship
exposed e europe to the possibility of 'democratic infection' -
demanded:
- basic freedoms of speech, press & movement inc travel to western countries, freedom for economic enterprises, increased rights of autonomy for slovak minority
- called a shift in economic priorities away from heavy industry towards consumer goods dubby assured moscow that czech would remain loyal to warsaw pact. when no clear opposition emerged, the czech communist party ended press censorship ended press censorship & opened borders w west, even discussing trade w FRG -
late july
brezhnev pressured dubby to repeal the reforms, but despite promises to do so, dubcek continued w his liberalising path = triggered warsaw pact invasion -
Vietcong took advantage of tet in launching a series of military attacks against US targets <100 towns & cities in SV outcome - fail - 25k Vietcong killed, 5k captured created a disillusionment / psychological defeat across america- Walter Cronkite claimed the conflict reached stalemate, shaping public views- marked a turning point in the war and beginning of gradual US withdrawal from the region extra- by time of tet USA = 550k ground troops
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more than 500 civilians are murdered by U.S. forces. The massacre happens amid a campaign of U.S. search-and-destroy operations that are intended to find enemy territories, destroy them and then retreat. brutal, provoked stronger anti war sentiment back gome
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This marked the end of one era of US Cold War action in Asia and the start of a completely new strategy
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USSR, UK, US in geneva
prevent the spread of nuclear weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and to further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament and general and complete disarmament. treaty came into force in 1970 initiated further discussions on arms limitations -
USSR, Bulgaria, GDR, Hungary & Poland expressed concerns regarding czech reforms
saw socialism within czech as a threat to the entire socialist movement and shouldn't be tolerated, as they could lead to a split in socialist unity, both internally & externally -
The invasion stopped Alexander Dubček's Prague Spring liberalisation reforms and strengthened the authoritarian wing of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia About 250,000 Warsaw Pact troops (afterwards rising to about 500,000), supported by thousands of tanks and hundreds of aircraft, participated in the overnight operation, which was code-named Operation Danube NATO unthreatened by invasion invasion undermined possibility that change could be achieved via party led reform
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a Soviet foreign policy that proclaimed that any threat to "socialist rule" in any state of the Soviet Bloc in Central and Eastern Europe was a threat to all of them, and therefore, it justified the intervention of fellow socialist states. It was proclaimed in order to justify the Soviet-led occupation of Czechoslovakia earlier in 1968, with the overthrow of the reformist government there.
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US global power under threat due to its inability to achieve a military victory in Vietnam = pressure on Nixon
his aims: VIETNAMISATION- a strategy to limit US engagement in foreign conflicts
- us withdrawal but strengthening ARVN- updating equip w M-16 rifles
1968 ARVN- 82K
1970- 1mil
- negates growing domestic opposition and strengthen his political security
- would strengthen his negotiating position w NV Nixon's strategy was designed to encourage NV to agree on a negotiated compromise -
Nixon realised that China was a developing nuclear power & major political & strategic force in Asia independent of USSR July 1969- Artichoke Approach
US removed trade controls & relaxed some travel restrictions. the gradual peeling off of restrictions layer by later
Nixon also managed a number of diplomatic contacts via France, Romania & Pakistan and use their diplomatic connections to form a strong rs w china
Mao also saw USSR as an immediate threat = sino-american rs necessary -
hard line communist loyalist, remained in power until 1989. it was dependent on a continued soviet military presence to retain its power
red army remained in czechoslovakia until 1990 -
a soviet border patrol near Zhenbao Island in eastern USSR ambushed by Chinese forces
- exemplary of China's 'active defence' -
Sino-Soviet relations worsened further following the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968. Border confrontations escalated in March 1969 when a group of People's Liberation Army troops engaged Soviet border guards on Zhenbao Island in Manchuria, resulting in considerable casualties on both sides.
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erupted widespread opposition
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military offensive in areas of Cambodia regarded safe by NV
aims:
-sever supply of HCM trail
-pressure NV to negotiate on peace settlement
-reduce spread of communism due to emergence of NV supported Khmer Rouge which would undermine nixon
this operation proved to NV that US still committed to SV to strengthen their negotiating position = US increasing presence in cambodia.
YET this was negated since 150k troops withdrew from SV in the following year -
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JUNE
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4 students shot by US National Guards & 9 wounded
fuelled nationwide protests -
In order to counterbalance the Soviet threat, the Chinese government sought a rapprochement with the United States. This resulted in a secret visit to China by Henry Kissinger in 1971, which in turn paved the way for President Richard Nixon's official visit to China in 1972. This meeting was arranged and facilitated by Pakistan through its strong diplomatic channels with China despite his efforts, kissinger failed to persuade china to pressurise NV into engaging in a peace process
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jan
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ARVN troops w US support, invade Laos- attempt to cut off HCM Trail and prevent an invasion of SV as US troops continued to fall. They are forced to retreat and suffer heavy losses
30k ARVNs attacked
this invasion only served to highlight the weaknesses of ARVN, proving that ARVN could only have a chance of matching NV while it had US air support, yet even with this invasion US support proved futile
the invasion made NV offensive > defensive
highlights failure of Nixons peace w honour -
top-secret Department of Defense study of U.S. political and military involvement in Vietnam from 1945-1967 leaked by military analyst Daniel Ellsberg. reveals the US gov had secretly increased US troops in the war. some info indicated that JFK supported assassination of Diem Published at a time when support for U.S. involvement in war was rapidly eroding, the Pentagon Papers confirmed many people’s suspicions about the active role the U.S. government had taken in building up the conflict.
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military campaign conducted by NV- a critical test of Vietnamisation
ARVN resisted, suffering 8k casualties but NV suffered almost 5x more -
Its purpose was to halt or slow the transportation of supplies and materials for the Spring Offensive- supporting ARVN via US bombing campaign- INTENSE AIR OFFENSE 150k tons of bombs dropped on NV & its troops in SV
this boosted morale amongst ARVN impact of vietnamisation:
Vietnamisation had some positive outcomes domestically for Nixon, but it did little to strengthen USA's overriding aim of achieving 'peace with honour' in Vietnam -
an important strategic and diplomatic overture that marked the culmination of the establishment of relations between US and China after years of American diplomatic policy that favored Taiwan.
visit ended 25 years of no communication/diplomatic ties between them and was key in normalising relations between US & PRC.
Nixon took advantage of the SS split
The normalisation of ties culminated in 1979, when the U.S. established full diplomatic relations with the PRC.