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Plessy vs Ferguson
The Supreme Court of the United States upholds Louisiana's law that segregates public facilities based on race. This paves the way for racial discrimination in all aspects of life in the country, including its colleges and schools (Thomas, 1997). -
Berea College v. Kentucky
Berea College was a private institution that allowed both white and black students to attend together. Kentucky passed a law prohibiting private schools from teaching on a desegregated basis. The College sued, but lost at the Supreme Court, further perpetuating segregation in higher education (Burnside, 2001). Berea College [Digital image]. (2018, January 24). Retrieved September 11, 2018, from http://universityinnovation.org/wiki/File:Berea_college.jpg#file -
Public Sentiment
At this point, 30% of the population thinks schools should desegregate. Of this number, 40% are northerners and only 2% are southerners (Schwartz, 1967). -
Silas Hunt
Silas Hunt enrols at the University of Arkansas School of Law, making him the first student to desegregate an institution of higher education in the South (Kilpatrick, 2009). Silas Herbert Hunt at the University of Arkansas (UA) in Fayetteville (Washington County). [Digital image]. (2018). Retrieved September 11, 2018, from http://www.encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/media-detail.aspx?mediaID=6866 -
Sweatt v. Painter: The Tides Are Turning (1 of 2)
Heman Sweatt was a black man who applied to the University of Texas's whites-only law school. Sweatt was rejected, and he sued the school. Texas offered to open a new separate law school. The Supreme Court rejected Texas's offer and ordered Sweatt be admitted arguing the school "cannot be effective in isolation from the individuals and institutions with which the law interacts." The basis of the court was that a student could not be kept separate from his peers in his classes. -
Sweatt v. Painter: The Tides Are Turning (2 of 2)
In doing so, the Court stated for the first time that a separate institution would be inferior (and not equal), but it did not overturn Plessy v. Ferguson (Sweatt v Painter, n.d.). Heman Sweatt [Picture of Heman Sweatt]. (2018). Retrieved September 11, 2018, from http://diversity.utexas.edu/sweattsymposium/2013/03/15/legacy-of-heman-sweatt/ -
Brown vs Board of Education
The plaintiffs of the case, all black students, had been denied admission to public schools based on their race. They argued that laws allowing racial segregation in public schools violated the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. The Court unanimously agreed with the plaintiffs and effectively overturned the separate-but-equal doctrine (Brown v. Board of Education). (Figure 1. U.S. Supreme Court: Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka) (Full citation in References. Too long to fit) -
Public Sentiment
49% of citizens believe whites and blacks should attend school together. Of these, 61% are northerners and only 15% are southerners (Schwartz, 1967). -
Affirmative Action (1 of 2)
President John F. Kennedy's Executive Order 10925 established the policy of affirmative action. This required government contractors to take "affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed, and that employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin." Originally, affirmative action policies aimed to improve the chances of minorities in employment and education. -
Affirmative Action (2 of 2)
Getty Images. (2012). [A protester in favour of affirmative action stands outside the US Supreme Court in 2012]. Retrieved September 11, 2018, from https://ichef.bbci.co.uk/news/800/cpsprodpb/1686A/production/_97166229_gettyimages-153854696.jpg -
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Diversification and Affirmative Action (1 of 2)
Affirmative Action has brought many benefits for minorities since its inception. These benefits include an increase in minority representation in college, it provides them with educational advantages, and proponents argue that these policies are necessary "to compensate for centuries of racial, social, and economic oppression" (Affirmative Action, 2014). However, many critics argue that such policies are highly outdated, it discriminates against whites, and that it is unconstitutional... -
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Diversification and Affirmative Action (1 of 2)
because it violates the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment (Affirmative Action, 2014). However, the adoption of policies such as affirmative action has had great impact in the composition of the student bodies across the United States, making colleges more diverse and welcoming to minority students (Affirmative Action, 2014). -
Public Sentiment
63% of people in the country think that blacks and whites should attend school together. Of these, 73% are from the North and only 31% are from the South (Schwartz, 1967). -
Civil Rights Act of 1964
The Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which banned, among other things, racial discrimination in colleges, schools, and in other public places that received federal assistance (Civil Rights Act of 1964, 2010). -
Executive Order in 1965
President Lyndon B. Johnson, a major proponent of affirmative action, issued Executive Order in 1965. This Order required government contractors to take into account race as a factor in order to increase the number of minorities in the workplace (Affirmative Action, 2014). -
Bakke v. Regents of the University of California
The Medical School of the University of California at Davis employed race quotas in its admissions process. The Supreme Court ruled such quotas to be unconstitutional. However, the race of an applicant could still be used as a factor in admissions, but it could not be the sole reason for admission (Regents v Bakke, n.d.). -
George Bush Junior
In January of 2003, President Bush's administration filed an amicus brief to the Supreme Court asking it to strike down the University of Michigan's race-based admissions policy, believing it to be unconstitutional (Pres. Bush Calls..., 2003). -
Grutter v. Bollinger (2 of 2)
The Supreme Court held that "in the context of its individualized inquiry into the possible diversity contributions of all applicants, the Law School's race-conscious admissions program does not unduly harm nonminority applicants." (Grutter v. Bollinger. (n.d.). Even though President Bush, Jr, had filed an amicus brief asking the Court to strike down the school's admissions system, he praised the decision (Malveaux, 2003). -
Grutter v. Bollinger (1 of 2)
Barbara Grutter, a white woman, sought admission into the University of Michigan Law School. Even though she had impressive credentials, she was denied admission. Grutter sued the school arguing the school discriminated against her based on her race. The Supreme Court, however, disagreed with Grutter and sided with the school. (Continued) -
President Obama's Affirmative Action Policy
Obama recognized racial diversity as an important goal of an institution of higher learning. Therefore, these institutions are allowed to consider several factors in their admissions process, including race and ethnicity (Guidance, 2011).
Levinson, A. (2008, February 16). Barack Obama [Barack Obama delivers a speech at the University of Southern California]. Retrieved September 11, 2018, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Barack_Obama/Selected_picture#/media/File:Obama_Portrait_2006.jpg -
Fisher v. University of Texas
Abigail Fisher, a white student, applied for admission at the University of Texas at Austin. Fisher was denied admission, and she sued the school claiming her race was the deciding factor in her rejection. The Supreme Court sided with the University saying its admissions policy survived strict scrutiny, and Fisher's rights had not been violated (Fisher v. University of Texas, n.d.). -
Trump Rescinds Obama's Affirmative Action Guidelines
President Obama had issued guidelines that encouraged colleges to take race as a factor in their admissions process. However, the Trump Administration reversed such guidelines and encouraged a more race-neutral admissions process ("Notice," 2008). -
Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard
In 2017, the anti-affirmative action group called Students for Fair Admissions filed a lawsuit against Harvard University on behalf of Asian-American students for giving preference to other racial minorities. The Trump administration filed an amicus brief with the Supreme Court siding with the plaintiffs (Benner, 2018). A trial for this case is scheduled for October, 2018. The future of Affirmative Action is on the line.
