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KKK founded
Ku Klux Klan members were White Anglo-Saxon Protestants (WASPs). Set up in response to liberation of slaves. Resurgence in 1920s & 1950s. -
15th Amendment
Gave African American men right to vote. Many states introduced poll taxes (blacks too poor) & literacy tests (many illiterate as few black schools). Alabama question: "How many bubbles in a bar of soap?" Subjected to violence/intimidation to prevent casting vote. -
Plessy v Ferguson
Supreme Court ruling: 'separate but equal'. Segregation was constitutional as long as facilities were equal. -
NAACP founded
National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People founded by leading black intellectuals, e.g. W.E.B. du Bois. Multi-racial organisation, but criticised for working within system. 50,000 members in 1940 grew to 600,000 by 1946. -
CORE founded
Congress of Racial Equality founded by James Farmer. Non-violent tactics. More prominent in 1960s. -
Truman proclamation 9981
No segregation in armed forces. Over 1 million blacks had served in armed forces & more on Home Front during WW2. Still 'Jim Crow' laws in daily life. -
Eisenhower president
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Brown v Topeka
Linda Brown's parents & 12 others went to court in 1951 to use nearby white school in Kansas. In 1952, lawyers from NAACP (led by Thurgood Marshall) presented evidence at Supreme Court. "We conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of 'separate but equal' has no place." (Chief Justice Warren, 17th May 1954). -
Brown II
Ordered schools to integrate "with all deliberate speed". By 1957, 300,000 black children in desegregated schools & 2.4 million in segregated schools. White Citizens' Councils formed & KKK re-emerged. -
Claudette Colvin arrested
Arrested on 2nd March 1955 for refusing to give up seat to white person. NAACP considered using her case, however she was seen as too young/head-strong & was thought she was pregnant by married man. -
Murder of Emmet Till
14-year-old Till accused of harrasing Carolyn Bryant in Mississippi shop. Roy Bryant (husband) & J.W. Milam (brother-in-law) abducted & murdered Till. Body could only be identified by a ring. Trial began in Sept. 1955 & lasted 4 days, with all-white jury's decision taking only 1 hour (said state failed to prove identity/not enough evidence). Till's mother chose open coffin to show extent of violence to raise awareness. -
Rosa Parks arrested
Arrested on 1st Dec. 1955 for refusing to give up seat for white man. Jo Ann Robinson (leader of Montgomery WPC) organised bus boycott for 5th Dec. (trial date). MIA formed & activists, e.g. MLK, involved. 20,000 boycotted on 5th Dec & 7,000 attended rally. Parks fined $14. State government refused demands to end standing policy. Then demanded full desegregation. -
Montgomery Bus Boycott
Black taxis charged 10¢. Obscure City Law stating minimum fare was 45¢. Car pools & church cars used. Police used local laws to prevent crowds at pick-up points & arrested drivers for minor traffic violations. WCC pressured insurance agencies to cancel church policies, so MLK used Lloyd's of London. Covered by US national press in summer. -
Southern Manifesto
Over 100 (inc. 19 senators) Southern senators & congressmen signed Southern Manifesto that opposed racial integration in education. Believed Federal Government threatened their freedom. -
Opposition to boycott
In Jan. 1956, MLK's home firebombed. In Feb. 1956, 89 leading figures, e.g. MLK & Parks, arrested for organising illegal boycott. Montgomery White Council membership grew to 12,000 by March 1956. -
Supreme Court Ruling
MIA & NAACP took issue of transport segregation to federal district court (Browder v Gayle). Federal court accepted unconstitutional. Montgomery city officials appealed so case went to Supreme Court. On 13th Nov. 1956, upheld federal court decision. Boycott formally ended on 20th Dec. 1956, when MLK, Abernathy & other leaders went on integrated bus. Blacks waved at KKK intimidation. 4 churches bombed & snipers used. Significance: unity, hope, peaceful, activists from north/south & MLK as leader. -
SCLC founded
Southern Christian Leadership Conference founded in January 1957. First president was MLK. United black church with civil rights movement. -
Senator Thurmond's filibuster
Senator of South Carolina conducted longest ever filibuster of 24hrs 18mins in attempt to prevent passage of Civil Rights Bill. Dixiecrat (white southern Democrat opposed to civil rights legislation). Political party won over 1 million votes in 1948 election. -
Little Rock Crisis
On 3rd Sept., 9 (of 25 selected from 75 applicants) black students tried to enroll. Arkansas State governor (Orval Faubus) ordered 250 National Guardsmen to block entry. On 4th Sept., troops removed & students passed through white crowd of 1,000. Eisenhower took control of National Guard & protected students for rest of year, with 1,000 federal troops. Significance: wide media coverage, embarrassed & first president action. Between 1960-74, 68% black children in segregated schools dropped to 8%. -
1957 Civil Rights Act
Passed by Congress in Sept. 1957 (first for 82 years). Set up US Commission on Civil Rights (first task on racial discrimination in Montgomery voting rights), emphasised right of all to vote, allowed Federal Government to intervene if voting prevented & stated all people had right to serve on juries. Contents watered-down due to opposition from Southern Democrats Party. -
Faubus closed all Arkansas schools
Closed in August to prevent integration. Schools reopened in 1959, following Supreme Court ruling & pressure from parents. Faubus still won 3rd term as governor. -
Greensboro sit-in
4 students ordered at whites-only counter in Woolworths. Remained all day & returned with 23 next day. Over 80 by 3rd day & 300 by 5th day. Boycotted any shop with segregated lunch counters. MLK promised support of SCLC. Sales dropped & segregation ended. Significance of sit-ins: favourable news coverage, peaceful, direct, SNCC, stores found profits down by 1/3 & by end of 1961, 810 towns had desegregated public areas. -
SNCC founded
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee in North Carolina. First chairman was Marion Barry. Received $800 grant from SCLC. Trained students for hostility during sit-ins. By April 1960, 78 places involved in sit-ins. Over 2,000 arrests in 1960 (police ignored whites). -
1960 Civil Rights Act
Renewed Commission on Civil Rights & stated that those who obstructed an attempt to register or vote would be prosecuted. -
Freedom Rides
Supreme Court ruled bus stations for interstate travellers to be integrated. James Farmer (CORE National Director) & 12 others left Wasington DC to travel to New Orleans. Bus firebombed in Anniston on Sunday 14th May 1961. Exploding fuel tank caused mob to retreat. Warning shots fired by highway patrolmen. Attacked in Birmingham & Eugene 'Bull' Connor had given most police day off. Kennedy secured promise of no violence in Jackson. -
Freedom Rides
(cont.) Arrested in Jackson when trying to use whites-only waiting room. 27 Freedom Riders jailed for 67 days. Over 300 arrested in Jackson during summer. FBI documents handed over in 1983 revealed FBI were aware of KKK plans to attack riders in Birmingham. Police officer told KKK there would be no arrests. -
Role of Kennedy, 1961-63
New Frontier in inauguration speech. Appointed 5 black federal judges, e.g. Thurgood Marshall, & Robert Kennedy as Att. Gen. (law courts could ensure civil rights followed). Sent 23,000 gov. troops to Mississippi Uni. Civil Rights Bill to Congress in Feb. 1963. Pressed escorts for Freedom Riders. Met MLK & leaders after Washington March, showing commitment. "If King loses, worse leaders are going to take his place" (Robert Kennedy). Feared loss of Dixiecrat support (e.g. watered down bill). -
Government reaction to Freedom Rides
Attorney General (Robert Kennedy) didn't want situation to escalate & hoped not to send in US marshals. Violence avoided in Mississippi when became clear marshals would be used. On 22nd Sept. 1961, Interstate Commerce Commission issued regulation prohibiting interstate buses using segregated terminals. Expectation that Kennedy would support demand for civil rights as black votes had contributed to narrow win in 1960 election. -
Albany Movement
Campaign of marches, boycotts & protests in Albany, Georgia. Joined by MLK in Dec. 1961. Violence not used so received little publicity. Segregation wasn't ended. Small increase in
black registered voters. Many saw it as a failure. -
James Meredith Case
In May 1961, Uni of Mississippi rejected Meredith. Re-applied in June 1962 with NAACP arguing rejection due to race. Supreme Court upheld federal court to force uni to accept. Uni officials & state governor (Ross Barnett), WCC members, physically stopped Meredith. On 30th Sept. 1962, Kennedy sent 320 federal marshals to escort him. Mob of 3,000 attacked, chanting against federal government. 2 killed, 166 marshals & 210 others wounded. Registered on 1st Oct. & 300 soldiers stayed on campus. -
Events in Birmingham
SCLC tried new strategy: Project C - 'Confrontation'. Birmingham completely segregated & many attacks on blacks. Leaders thought chief of police (Bull Conner) could be provoked into using violence against peaceful protestors to gain max. publicity. Sit-ins, mass meetings, marches & boycott of shops began on 3rd April 1963. MLK arrested on 12th April 1963 for defying ban on marches. Released on 20th April. Decision that children & students would be used. -
Events in Birmingham
(cont.) On 2nd May 1963, 6,000 young blacks marched (as young as 6). On 3rd May, Bull Connor ordered police to use dogs & fire hoses as jails full. 1,300 children arrested, missing school. Photos spread worldwide & Kennedy sick/ashamed. Sent Assistant Att. Gen. to mediate. On 9th May, agreed desegregation within 90 days. 1 month later, 143 cities had some desegregation. On 11th June, Kennedy, introducing Civil Rights Bill, said "had damaged America". Some questioned tactics & forced progress. -
March on Washington for Jobs & Freedom
Led by Phillip Randolph & Bayard Rustin. NAACP, CORE, SNCC & SCLC took part. MLK knew high profile must be sustained. Kennedy feared violence & called extra police. Purpose to push for civil/economic rights & passage of Civil Rights Bill. 250,000 (80,000 white) marched on 28th Aug. (double estimate). 'I have a dream' speech. Televised & Kennedy met with leaders. No opposition in Senate changed mind. 'Farce on Washington' (Malcom X). 4 black girls killed by bomb during Sunday school in Sept. -
Role of Johnson, 1963-69
Appointed Thurgood Marshall to Supreme Court & Patricia Harris as US ambassador. Introduced Civil Rights (invited MLK to signing) & Voting Rights Acts. Federalised Alabama state national guard to escort Selma to Montgomery marchers (exec. order). Firm in resolve to find Mississippi murderers. Won support in Congress as southerner (Texas). "No memorial oration or eulogy could more eloquently honour Pres. Kennedy's memory than the earliest possible passage of the CRB for which he fought so long." -
Freedom Summer
1962-64, 700,000 blacks in South registered to vote. Hardly rose in Deep South. Election year so aimed to increase voters in Mississippi (lowest number in USA, 7%). NAACP, CORE & SNCC formed Mississippi Freedom Party. 80,000 joined, mostly white college students. Taught in Freedom Schools & held voter registration classes. 30 schools & 3,000 students (7,000 by end of year). 10,000 KKK burned 61 crosses, 37 churches & 30 homes. Blacks lost jobs for going to meetings/Freedom School or registering. -
Malcom X's visit to Mecca
Had been member of Black Muslims/Nation of Islam. Black Nationalist & sought separatism. Rejected slave surname (Little). Oratorical skills increased membership to 100,000 in years 1952-64. Felt violence justified as self-defence & means of creating black nation. Changed views after visit to Mecca. Left Black Muslims. Set up Muslim Mosque Inc. & Organisation of Afro-American Unity. Believed Islam could be means to overcome racial issues. Raised self-esteem more than any other leader. -
Mississippi Murders
James Chaney & 2 white colleagues (Andrew Goodman & Michael Schwerner) arrested on 21st June 1964, while investigating church bombing. Taken in for traffic offences by KKK member policeman. Informed associates in KKK. When released, they were murdered. 6 weeks later, 3 badly decomposed bodies founded under dam. Chaney severly beaten & all shot. Johnson firm in resolve to find murderers. 18 arrested & 7 convincted (none served over 6 years). 1,600 registered, 17,000 tried. Act passed in 1965. -
1964 Civil Rights Act
Segregation in hotels, motels, restaurants, lunch counters & theatres banned. Responsibility of Federal Government to bring cases of discrimination to court. Businesses working with government monitored to ensure no discrimination. Fair Employment Practices Committee established on permanent basis. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. -
Positives/negatives of Black Power movement
Self-esteem & black culture rose in 1970s. Black Panthers (biggest group) helped local communities. Carmichael helped MLK in Poor People's Campaign. Many potrayed civil rights & black power movements as separate, although shared common ground. Negative media coverage (based on ignorance/fear). 1964-68, 329 riots & 220 deaths Violence gave police excuse to crack down on all groups/undermined MLK's policy of high ground & lost white support. Dissuaded (Black Power women supported women's rights). -
Emergence of Black Power
Slow progress from non-violence/legislature. Acts didn't solve Deep South problems. Ghetto conditions worsening/ignored. Work/education discrimination. Got results on local issues, e.g. occupied construction sites to force employers to hire more black workers. Told blacks to defend themselves/be proud of race/reconnect with heritage. Others felt price of integration too high or Acts enough progress so focused on other issues. Black Muslims sought separatism. "Black is beautiful" (Carmichael). -
Assassination of Malcom X
Shot several times by 3 Black Muslims on 21st Feb. 1965 as he began speech to 400 followers in New York. Had survived firebombing of home week before. 2 Black Muslims found guilty in March 1966. -
March from Selma
Civil Rights Act didn't mean blacks could vote. 383 of 15,000 blacks registered in Selma, Alabama. 2 months of attempts. Jimmie Lee Jackson murdered in Feb. 1965. Sheriff Jim Clark's reputation matched Bull Connor. MLK hoped for brutal reaction. March planned from Selma to Birmingham to present Governor Wallace petition for voting rights. Wallace banned march. Still began on 7th March. Stopped on Edmund Pettus Bridge. Attacked by Sheriff's men & state troopers with gas/clubs. 'Bloody Sunday'. -
March from Selma
(cont.) Johnon decided to introduce bill to enfranchise blacks. On 15th March, gave speech to Congress asking for Voting Rights Bill. Second march on 9th March, but MLK turned marchers back as had agreed to avoid violence. Agreed march from Selma to Montgomery would go ahead if peaceful. On 21st March, MLK led 250,000 on biggest march in South. -
1965 Voting Rights Act
Ended literacy tests. Ensured federal agents could monitor registration & step in if discrimination (if less than 50% of state's voting-age citizens registered). By end of 1965, 250,000 blacks had registered, 1/3 assisted by government monitors. Further 750,000 by end of 1968. Number of elected black representatives increased rapidly. MLK's non-violence policy had worked (sympathy from whites & 2 key legislations enacted). Some felt progress too slow & opposed MLK's deals with white authorities. -
Watts riot
Long-term: 2x likely to be poor & unemployed, poor education & in 30 months before, police shot 65 blacks (25 unarmed). Short-term: ghettoes at worst in summer & police violence while arresting young black man. 30,000 people. 34 died, 1,072 injured & 4,000 arrested. $40 million damage. MLK visited ("We obviously are not reaching these people"). Johnson: "When you put your foot on a man's neck & hold him down for 300 years, & then you let him up, what's he going to do?" Largest race riot. -
Chicago Freedom Movement
MLK began campaign in North in Jan. 1966 for economic freedom. Chicago population of 4 million with 1/4 black, mostly in ghettoes. Marches & publicity. Hatred in North some of worst he had seen & struck by brick. Want of fairer distribution of wealth seen as almost communist. Less keen on changes close to home & feared fall in house prices. Rocks & bottles thrown at 500 black marchers. Chicago Tribune called MLK a "paid professional agitator". Some argue worsened situation. -
Chicago Freedom Movement
(cont.) Some short-lived successes made, especially in housing/provision of mortgages. Daley agreed to encourage integrated housing, but ignored this. SCLC received $4million federal grant to improve housing. In autumn 1966, MLK left & difficult to maintain pressure on Daley. Jesse Jackson (leading SCLC member) took over 'Operation Breadbasket'. Successfully used economic boycotts to incease black employment. Led to election of 1st black Chiago mayor (Harold Washington). -
Black Panther Party founded
Founded by Huey Newton & Bobby Seale in Oct. 1966 in California. Heavily influenced by Malcolm X. Black Panthers were one of largest Black Power groups. Aims outlined in Ten-Point Programme in 1967. Prepared to use revolutionary means & form alliances with radical white groups. Saw themselves as police/social workers of black communities. Had 5,000 members by 1968, inc. Stokely Carmichael (chairman of SNCC in 1966). Disbanded by 1982 due to divisions, FBI & 1969 events (27 killed & 700 injured). -
Blank Panther Party
(cont.) Patrolled streets in black areas. 'Rainbow coalitions' between non-white gangs. Controlled traffic by schools. Pressed local white govs. to give street lights, crossings to ghettoes. Breakfast clubs, medical clinics & courses on black history/rights. Carried guns (self-defence) & recorders (police harassment). Free shoes & clothing. Drug rehabilitation guidance & assistance to relatives of convicts. Money from black businesses. Some arrested for bank robbery. Provoked police shoot-outs. -
Race riots
In July 1964, New York City riot began when policeman shot young black man. In 1966, Chicago riot began after black man arrested, beaten & charged with assaulting 2 officers. Newark riot left 26 dead & over 1,000 injured. Detroit riot left over 40 dead, hundreds injured & 7,000 arrested. Racial violence peaked in summer 1967, with riots in 125 US cities. -
Kerner Report
Riots caused Johnson to invesigate causes. National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders set up in July 1967. Published Kerner Report in 1968 (named after Chair of Commission). Equality of opportunity didn't exist. USA was "moving toward two societies, one black, one white - separate & unequal". Economic issues & systematic police bias/brutality. Recommended sweeping federal initiatives, meant increased expenditure. Johnson felt blame placed too much on whites & didn't want to lose support. -
Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.
Visited Memphis in support of black refuse workers' strike on 4th April 1968. Assassinated by James Earl Ray, white racist. Funeral held on 9th April & 100,000 came. Final outburst of rioting (46 died, 300,000 injured, 21,000 arrested, $70million damage, 100+ cities, inc. new riot locations, ironic). Poor People's Campaign (failed due fo arguments/rain). Most whites related to MLK. In 1969, SNCC changed Non-violent to National & lost original members. More militant blacks & white opposition. -
1968 Civil Rights Act
Quickly passed on 11th April 1968, after MLK assassination. Included section on fair housing, covering rental housing & housing sales. Gave federal protection to civil rights workers, although made punishment for rioting more severe. -
Mexico Olympics
Medal ceremony for 200m with Tommie Smith (gold) & John Carlos (bronze). Smith gave clenched-fist salute with right hand (Black Power) & Calos with left (black unity). Single black glove (movement uniform), black scarf (black pride) & black socks with no shoes (black poverty). Peter Norman (Australian in 2nd) wore Civil Rights Badge. Smith & Carlos banned from athlete's village & sent to USA. Accused of bringing politics into sport & damaging Olympic Spirit. Publicity in front of whole world. -
Role of Nixon, 1969-74
Seemed to favour in 1950s. Little sympathy/support as pres. Didn't meet black leaders. Against idea of national holiday for MLK. Dealt harshly with extreme groups. Concerned about losing Southern support so made changes to benefit whites too. Funding/training for blacks to start business in black neighbourhoods. Tax breaks to white businesses with branches in black areas. Pressed affirmative action for job equality. More black officials in White House, e.g. James Farmer given high Dep. HWE job. -
Progress in poverty/employment by 1975
Federal anti-poverty measures raised living standards & education improved. 50% (1960) blacks living below poverty line fell to 30% (1974). In 1972, Nixon set up Office of Minority Business Enterprise to encourage black businesses. In 1972, Equal Employment Opportunity Act gave courts power to enforce equality. 300,000 companies with federal contact employed more blacks. In 1970, white unemployment 5% & black 8% (white teenagers 15%, black 50%). -
Progress in education by 1975
68% (1968) Southern blacks in segregated schools fell to 8% (1974). Bussing initiative made Southern schools among best integrated. In 1971, Nixon didn't support Supreme Court in Swann v Charlotte-Mecklenburg, saying bussing children to achieve racially mixed schools wouldn't be beneficial. School integration didn't benefit as much as hoped. -
Progress in voting/politics by 1975
In 1973, 200 blacks elected into state legislatures & 16 to Congress. In 1976, over 1/3 blacks didn't register & less than 1/2 registered voted (under 25: 1/3 registered & 1/4 voted). Electioms showed increased black participation in South. In 1970, VRA banned state literacy tests nationwide. In 1975, VRA included Hispanic, American Indian & other races. National attention on Vietnam War (MLK more involved in anti-VW Movement & poverty). Racism ran deep & desegregation patchy.