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Starting in about 1700, Europeans began exploring new farming methods such as crop rotation to achieve more productivity. This increased yield led to more food availability and reduced the occurrence of famine. Therefore, Europe's population became both larger and healthier as food was no longer as coveted and scarce. This was a major social change, because more people now survived childhood and could enter the workforce. -
Thomas Newcomen invented the world's first steam engine in 1712. This invention could pump water out of coal mines, significantly increasing coal production, an economic change, as factories could now be powered much more efficiently. However, a major social continuity that persisted despite this innovation was the poor treatment of workers. Miners were still forced to into harsh, dangerous conditions, and many lost their lives. -
In 1733, John Kay invented the flying shuttle, a device that allowed weavers to work much faster and produce cloth more efficiently. This economic change encouraged the early stages of industrialization, as more people began earning wages in workshops rather than working only at home. Socially, it shifted labor patterns, as women and children increasingly participated in textile work. Despite these changes, the textile industry remained central to Europe’s economy, showing economic continuity. -
Starting around 1740, The British Parliament began passing the Enclosure Acts, to allow landowners to fence off common land. This then made the land private property, usually owned by wealthy aristocrats. A major social change that resulted from this was that poor farmers lost their farms, leading them to migrate to large cities to look for industrial jobs. This contributed to the rapid urbanization and industrialization of Europe. -
Intensifying in about 1750, this period of the 18th century was known as the Consumer Revolution. During this time, the middle-class and elite began purchasing goods for pleasure and luxury more so than necessity. Among these goods were tea, coffee, sugar, etc. This led to a major economic change, as demand for mass production and specialized industries grew. However, it also emphasized the continuity of exploitation of colonies and slavery, as supply heavily depended on these two factors. -
In 1764, James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny. This innovation allowed one worker to spin multiple threads when weaving, a revolutionary change to the textile industry. It laid the foundation for industrial production and increased textile production. Socially, women and children began to leave home to work wage jobs, changing the family structure from only having working men. However, social continuity was also seen as guilds protested industrialization for fear of losing business. -
In 1769, James Watt patents the new and improved steam engine. His version provided factories with more flexibility, allowing them to build away from rivers and still have a stable power source, thereby increasing economic production. Socially, urban labor demand grew, attracting more workers to cities and changing living patterns. Social continuity remained in the dangerous working conditions in mines and early factories. -
Famous thinker Adam Smith published his book The Wealth of Nations, in 1776. His work advocated for free market policies, no government interference in the economy, competition and pursuit of self-interest. This influenced trade liberalization and the rise of capitalist economies, a major economic change. Yet some old monopolies, tariffs, and guild privileges persisted, showing economic continuity. Overall, Smith’s ideas helped shape Europe’s economic philosophy for the Industrial Revolution. -
In 1785, Catherine the Great of Russia issued a charter granting nobles legal rights, and reinforcing their control over peasants. Socially, this maintained continuity, preserving feudal hierarchy and serfdom. Economically it slowed modernization because peasants remained tied to estates and could not freely participate in market agriculture. This policy demonstrates that not all European regions experienced the same rapid economic or social changes as Western Europe. -
The French National Assembly officially abolished feudal dues and aristocratic privileges, greatly altering social structure. Economically, these decrees created a freer market for labor and land and a better tax system. Socially, peasants and lower-class workers gained rights such as fairer wages, which had been denied for decades. However, some continuities, such as economic hardship in rural, disconnected parts of France, still persisted.