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Grammar–Translation Origins:
Languages taught through analysis of grammar, translation of literary texts, memorization of rules and vocabulary.
Established traditional view of language learning as intellectual training. They had the belief that language learning develops mental discipline rather than communication. -
Formal Grammar–Translation Method:
Standardized across Europe for Latin and modern languages; classes taught in students’ first language.
Emphasized written language, rules, and vocabulary lists, little speaking practice. Cemented teacher-centered instruction focused on reading/writing; speaking neglected. -
Direct Method:
Developed by Berlitz and others; immersion in target language, no translation, emphasis on everyday speech and inductive grammar.
Shifted focus to oral communication, pronunciation, and listening comprehension and everyday vocabulary. -
Audiolingual Method:
Based on structural linguistics and behaviorist psychology; pattern drills, dialogues, and habit formation.
Popular in U.S. military programs; stressed listening/speaking before reading/writing; highly structured. -
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT):
Emerged from dissatisfaction with previous methods; emphasized authentic tasks, interaction, and functional language use.
Redefined the teacher as facilitator, increased student participation, influenced textbook design and assessment. -
Postmethod Eclectic Approaches:
Teachers blend multiple methods, adapt to learner needs, integrate technology, intercultural competence and flexibility.
Promotes learner autonomy, differentiated instruction, and digital resources; reflects today’s globalized context.