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Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press c. 1450 to reduce the cost of books, spread knowledge, and make literature more accessible. The Gutenberg Bible was the first thing to be widespread across Western Europe using the printing press. -
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The Ottoman Empire had superior plans and technology when fighting against the Byzantine Empire leading to its fall. The Ottoman Empire slowly tried to gain power of Eastern Europe after this. -
The Tudor Dynasty began with Henry VII defeating Richard III and ending with Elizabeth the I. It allowed for political transformation and English Reformation.
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Sponsored by Spain, Christopher Columbus took three ships (the Niña, the Pinta, and the Santa María) to find a westward route to Asia but instead traveled to the Americas. This was the beginning of colonization in the Americas. -
King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain issued the Alhambra Decree in 1492 to kick out the Jews or force them to convert to Catholicism in Spain. -
Spain was making Catholic kingdoms slowly reclaim territories from Muslim rule on the Iberian Peninsula. Granada surrendered to the Catholic monarchs, effectively ending the Reconquista.
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Michelangelo was tasked to paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel by Pope Julius II which took him four years to do. He was supposed to just do a simple painting but he decided to do the entire ceiling instead which is why it took so long. -
A religious and political movement caused by the 95 Theses to reform the Roman Catholic Church. -
Martin Luther was a German priest and theologian. He was most famous for his 95 Theses which challenged the practices of the Catholic Church, most notably the sale of indulgences. This sparked the Protestant Reformation. -
Luther was summoned to the Diet of Worms to recant his writing. He refused to recant stating that he was bound by the Scriptures he quoted and that his conscience was captive to the word of God. -
5 years after Machiavelli died The Prince was published, which caused a great deal of controversy because of its amoral and ruthless advice. The Catholic Church proceeded to condemn and then ban the book due to its content. -
The Anglican Church (The Church of England) started in 1534 with The Act of Supremacy creating a national church independent of the Pope. -
An English Parliament Act that declared King Henry VIII the Supreme Head of the Church of England. A key event in the English Reformation due to King Henry VIII's desire to annul his marriage to Catherine of Anagon and to control the Church's wealth and influence within his kingdom. -
A book that proposed a heliocentric model of the solar system which placed the Sun at its center rather than the Earth stating that Earth was also a planet. This was groundbreaking because most thought that Earth was the stationary center of the universe, not a planet before this was published. -
The Council of Trent was the Catholic Reformation's pivotal ecumenical council that addressed the Protestant Reformation by reaffirming Catholic doctrines. It reformed indulgences and clerical corruption and established new educational standards for priests by creating seminaries.
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The Peace of Augsburg recognized "cuius regio, eius religio" which allowed a prince to decide the official religion of their territory, ending conflicts between Lutheran and Catholic states in Germany. -
A treaty that ended conflict between Lutherans and Catholics by establishing the principle of cuius regio, eius religio (whose realm, his religion). It allowed rulers to determine the official religion of their territory. -
A wave of targeted assassinations and mob violence against French Calvinist Protestants in France, following the marriage of Margaret of Valois to Henry of Navarre. Caused by the failed assassination attempt on Admiral Gaspard de Coligny. -
The final phase of the French Wars of Religion. A conflict between King Henry III, the Catholic League leader Henry I, Duke of Guise, and the Huguenot heir, Henry of Navarre (later Henry IV)
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A defeat of the Spanish Armada, culminating in the Battle of Gravelines by the English, ended Spain's invasion attempt due to English tactical superiority, use of fire ships, and the Armada's difficult journey around Britain where it was battered with storms. The English ships were built for battle while the Spanish ships were built for boarding which played a key factor in the defeat of the Spanish Armada. -
In 1588, Philip II of Spain launched the Spanish Armada to invade England and overthrow the Protestant Queen Elizabeth I. The invasion failed after the smaller, faster English fleet defeated the Armada, which was then further battered by storms as it tried to return to Spain. This event was a major victory for England, significantly boosting national pride and marking a turning point in the Anglo-Spanish War. Phillip's fleet was massive which is why it was such a great victory for the English. -
King Henry IV issued the Edict of Nantes effectively granting substantial religious and civil rights to French Protestants, bringing a temporary end to decades of civil and religious warfare. It established limited religious tolerance, allowed Huguenots to practice their faith in specified areas, granted them civil rights and eligibility for public office, and aimed to unify the kingdom under royal authority by separating civil and religious unity. -
The Third Defenestration of Prague was when Protestant Bohemian nobles threw two Catholic imperial regents and their secretary out of a window at Prague Castle. It was an act of defiance against Habsburg authority and violations of Protestant religious freedoms. -
A religious war in the Holy Roman Empire between Catholics and Protestants, sparked by the Defenestration of Prague. Fought in four phases, it ended with the Peace of Westphalia, recognizing Cuius regio, eius religio and establishing independent German states.
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The first stage of the Thirty Years' War. Began with the Defenestration of Prague and ended with the Catholic League's victory at the Battle of White Mountain. It was an uprising of the Bohemian estates against the rule of the Habsburg dynasty, in particular Emperor Ferdinand II, which triggered the Thirty Years' War.
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The second phase of the Thirty Years' War. King Christian IV of Denmark led Lutheran forces into the Holy Roman Empire to support German Protestants and were defeated by Imperial armies under Tilly and Wallenstein. This led to Denmark's withdrawal and the harsh Edict of Restitution, which aimed to restore Catholic lands. The Catholic League and the Emperor became strengthened after the failure of the Danish Intervention.
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The third phase of the Thirty Years' War where Sweden, led by King Gustavus Adolphus, entered the conflict. This turned the tide for the Protestant cause by defeating Catholic forces and establishing Sweden as a major European power, shifting the war from primarily religious to a broader political struggle for continental dominance.
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The final phase of the Thirty Years' War where France, led by Cardinal Richelieu, intervened in the war which changed the way war was going. France shifted the war from a religious war to a bigger European struggle. They fought on the side of the Protestants contering the Habsburgs in an attempt to end the war.
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The two sides that fought in the English Civil War. Royalists were loyal to King Charles I and believed in the Divine Right of Kings while Parliamentarians (roundheads) supported Parliament, believed in Parliament ideas, and believed in constitutional monarchy. -
Three civil wars between Charles I and Parliament over power, religion, and governance. The English Civil War started due to Charles I fighting back against the attempt to arrest Parliament members and ended up causing a shift in government and paving the way for many other things to change in England. Royalists, who supported Charles I, fought Parliamentarians led by Oliver Cromwell. It ended with Charles I's execution and the establishment of the Commonwealth, a republican government.
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Series of treaties that ended the Thirty Years' War. Established modern state sovereignty, religious coexistence, and balance of power. -
Charles I was executed for treason after losing the English Civil War. His belief in the Divine Right of kings, refusal to share power with Parliament, and religious conflicts is what is believed to have gotten him killed. -
Jamies I, who died in 1625, believed in the Divine Right of Kings, causing tensions with Parliament. Charles I ruled as an absolute monarch, was defeated in the English Civil War, and executed in 1649, while Oliver Cromwell led the Parliamentarians and established the Commonwealth. Charles II went into exile and was later restored to the throne, James II was too young to act, and William Mary wouldn't come to power until the Glorious Revolution of 1688. -
From this time Louis XIV ruled without a chief minister and some say that this time span marked the peak of French absolutism. He centralized power, controlled nobles by requiring their presence at his opulent court, and solidified Divine Right.
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A deposition of King James II. William III (his nephew) and Mary II (his daughter) replaced him with the two ruling as joint monarchs. They established a constitutional monarchy where Parliament's power surpassed the monarch's. -
King James II replacement by William III and Mary II, commonly known as the Glorious Revolution, was an important event where Parliament invited William to invade England, leading to James fleeing to France, establishing parliamentary sovereignty, and ushering in a constitutional monarchy with increased royal power constraints and greater religious tolerance for non-Anglicans, though Catholics remained excluded. -
This document limited the monarchy, strengthened Parliament, and guaranteed citizens' rights, laying the foundation for constitutional government. -
Published anonymously in late 1689 after the Glorious Revolution, the work justified the overthrow of King James II and supported the ascension of William and Mary, aligning with the new political order. It argued for natural rights and government by consent, establishing the social contract theory that underpins modern democratic thought, particularly in its defense of government's role to protect individual freedoms against tyranny, following the Glorious Revolution in England. -
The Treaty of Utrecht, a series of agreements signed in 1713, officially ended the War of the Spanish Succession, establishing a balance of power in Europe by confirming Philip V as King of Spain but preventing the union of the French and Spanish crowns, granting Britain territories like Gibraltar and Nova Scotia, and marking Britain's rise as a major colonial power. -
Began with Prussia's invasion of Silesia, challenging Maria Theresa's right to inherit the Habsburg lands after her father's death, despite the Pragmatic Sanction. It was a struggle for dynastic succession, territorial gain, and the balance of power in Europe. It solidified Prussia's status as a major European power under Frederick the Great. It marked the beginning of a long rivalry between Austria and Prussia and set the stage for future conflicts, like the Seven Years' War. -
A transformative era for the Habsburg monarchy, marked by her ascent as the first and only female ruler, facing challenges like the War of the Austrian Succession, and implementing significant enlightened absolutist reforms in administration, military, and finance, centralizing power and modernizing the state despite conservative tendencies, and solidifying the empire's position in European politics.
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Diderot's Encyclopedia was a revolutionary project that sought to democratize knowledge and foster a more rational, secular, and progressive society. Some say that it was a monumental Enlightenment project that compiled all human knowledge, promoting reason, science, and critical thinking by systematically organizing information on arts, trades, and sciences, challenging traditional authority, and influencing the French Revolution by providing access to knowledge.
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These rulers were key players in the Diplomatic Revolution, shifting alliances that ignited the Seven Years' War (1756-1763); Frederick the Great (Prussia) invaded Saxony, allying with Britain against Austria (Maria Theresa) and France (Louis XV), who formed an anti-Prussian coalition, while Britain's George III focused on colonial power, clashing with France globally. -
Global conflict involving Frederick the Great (Prussia), Louis XIV (France), Maria Theresa (Austria), and George III (Britian). Ended with the Treaty of Paris and reshaped colonial empires.
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Mechanized production and factories transformed Britain from an agrarian to an industrial economy.
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Catherine ruled Russia as an absolute monarch, expanded territory, modernized administration, and selectively adopted Enlightenment ideas.
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Ended the Seven Years' War, reshaping colonial holdings and European influence. -
A major peasant revolt against Catherine the Great, highlighting unrest among serfs in Russia.
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Promoted free-market economics and capitalism, influencing economic thought during the 18th century. -
Colonies in North America rebelled against Britain, inspired by Enlightenment ideals, and declared independence. -
A document proclaiming equality and individual rights, reflecting Enlightenment ideals and challenging feudal privileges. -
Formed by the Third Estate to create a new government, challenging the king's authority. -
Revolution under Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, marking the end of absolute monarchy in France. -
The year 1789, under King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette, marked the beginning of the French Revolution, a period of radical political and social upheaval triggered by severe economic crisis, social inequality, and widespread discontent with the monarchy's extravagance, leading to events like the storming of the Bastille and the Women's March on Versailles, forcing the royal family to Paris. -
A Paris mob attacked the Bastille, a symbol of royal authority, sparking the French Revolution. -
A successful slave revolts in Haiti that led to independence from France.
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King Louis XVI was executed during the Reign of Terror, ending monarchy in France. Queen Marie Antoinette was executed as a symbol of the monarchy's tyranny. -
Led by Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety, thousands were executed to protect revolutionary ideals. -
Napoleon overthrew the French government, ending the Revolution and establishing the Consulate. -
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Napoleon crowned himself, symbolizing independence from the Church and asserting state authority. -
Napoleon dissolved the Holy Roman Empire, ending centuries of decentralized rule in Central Europe. -
European leaders met after Napoleon's defeat to restore monarchies and to stabilize Europe. They aimed to create a balance of power, meaning no single country would dominate the continent. -
Napoleon was defeated by the Duke of Wellington, ending the Napoleonic Wars. -
Led by Prince Metternich, it restored conservative order in Europe, emphasizing monarchy, tradition, and stability. -
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This period was dominated by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich, who strongly supported conservative political ideas. Conservatism emphasized maintaining traditional institutions such as monarchy and suppressing liberal or nationalist movements that threatened stability.
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British cavalry attacked a large peaceful protest in Manchester where thousands of people demanded parliamentary reform and expanded voting rights. The event became known as the Peterloo Massacre and showed growing tensions between the government and reform movements in Britain. -
The Carlsbad Decrees were strict laws passed by Metternich that censored universities, newspapers, and political groups. Their goal was to prevent the spread of liberalism and nationalism, which were ideas that promoted political freedoms and independent nation-states. -
Napoleon Bonaparte died in exile on the remote island of Saint Helena after his defeat at the Battle of Waterloo. His death symbolized the final end of the Napoleonic era and the dominance of the conservative political order created after 1815. -
A group of Russian military officers attempted to overthrow Tsar Nicholas I and establish a constitutional government, meaning a government limited by laws and a written constitution. The revolt failed quickly and its leaders were executed or sent to Siberia. -
The July Revolution was a popular uprising in France that overthrew King Charles X after he tried to increase royal power and limit freedoms such as press rights. He was replaced by Louis-Philippe, known as the "Citizen King," who ruled under a constitutional monarchy, meaning the king's power was limited by a constitution and representative government. -
King Charles X was forced to abdicated during the July Revolution after he tried to strengthen royal authority and restrict freedoms such as the press and voting rights. Louis-Philippe became known as the "Citizen King" because he ruled under a constitutional monarchy and presented himself as a king who's supported the interests of the middle class rather than absolute royal power. -
Revolutionary movements spread across parts of Europe as people demanded political reform and national independence. Many of these uprisings were inspired by nationalism, the belief that people with a shared language, culture, and history should format their own nation. -
This British law expanded voting rights to more middle-class men and gave growing industrial cities more repsentation in Parliament. It was an important step toward a more democratic political system. -
Although revolutions spread across Europe in 1848, most of them were eventually suppressed by military force. Conservative regimes, which supported traditional monarchies and social order, were largely restored to power. -
Revolutions spread across Europe as people demanded political change and social reforms. These uprisings were influenced by liberalism, nationalism, and socialism, but most were eventually crushed. -
Many of the revolutions in 1848 were inspired by liberalism, nationalism, and socialism. These ideologies supported constitutional governments, national independence, and greater rights and protections for workers. -
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels published The Communist Manifesto, which criticized capitalism. They argued that the proletariat (working class) would eventually overthrow the bourgeoisie (wealthy capitalist class). -
Metternich fled Austria on March 31, 1848, after revolutionary protests in Vienna. His removal marked the temporary collapse of conservative control in Austria. -
Russia fought the Ottoman Empire, Britain, and France in a conflict over influence in the weakening Ottoman territories. The war became the first modern conflict with war correspondents and photography, allowing newspapers to report directly on battles and conditions.
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The Crimean War began when Russia, led by Tsar Nicholas I, fought against the Ottoman Empire and its allies Britain and France. The conflict was largely over control and influence in territories belonging to the weakening Ottoman Empire.
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The Crimean War is often considered the first modern war because journalists reported directly from the battlefield. New technologies such as war correspondents and photography allowed the public to see images and read firsthand accounts of the war.
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France allied with the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia to fight Austria for control of northern Italy. Their victory weakened Austrian influence and helped advance Italian unification, the movement to unite the many Italian states into one nation. -
The Second Industrial Revolution was a period of major technological growth involving electricity, steel production, chemical industries, and new transportation systems. These innovations expanded industrial economies, increased urbanization, and changed everyday life across Europe.
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Tsar Alexander II freed millions of Russian serfs, peasants who were legally bound to landowners and unable to leave the land they worked. The reform aimed to modernize Russia's economy and society, although many peasants still faced economic hardship. -
Several Italian states joined together to form the Kingdom of Italy through diplomacy and military action. The movement was led by Cavour and the revolutionary leader Garibaldi, whose volunteer army was known as the Redshirts. -
Prussia fought Austria to gain control over the German states and determine leadership in Central Europe. Prussia's victory strengthened its power and accelerated the movement toward German unification. -
Prussia, led by Otto von Bismarck, defeated France under Emperor Napoleon III in a major European conflict. The victory allowed the creation of the German Empire, which united the German states under Kaiser Wilhelm I.
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The Franco-Prussian War was led by Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck against France under Emperor Napoleon III. Bismarck used the conflict to unite the German states under Prussian leadership.
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The war ended with the creation of the German Empire in 1871. King Wilhelm I of Prussia became Kaiser Wilhelm I, the first emperor of a unified Germany. -
European leaders met to reorganize territories in the Balkans after conflicts involving the Ottoman Empire and Russia. Their goal was to maintain the balance of power and prevent a larger war between European powers. -
Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy formed the Triple Alliance, a military agreement promising mutual defense. This alliance contributed to the growing system of rival alliances that increased tensions in Europe. -
European leaders met in Berlin under Bismarck to establish rules for the colonization of Africa. The meeting helped begin the "Scramble for Africa," and by the early twentieth century European nations controlled most of the continent.
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The Berlin Conference was organized by Otto von Bismarck to establish rules for European nations dividing and claiming African territory. This meeting helped regulate the rapid expansion of European imperialism in Africa.
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Following the Berlin Conference, European powers completed aggressively to claim African land during the Scramble for Africa. By the early twentieth century, about 90% of the African continent was under European colonial control.
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Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish officer in the French army, was falsely accused of treason and imprisoned. The scandal revealed strong antisemitism, meaning prejudice and discrimination against Jewish people in French society. -
Mass protests erupted after Bloody Sunday, when Russian troops fired on peaceful demonstrators demanding reforms. Tsar Nicholas II responded by creating the Duma, a legislative assembly meant to represent the Russian people. -
Bloody Sunday occurred in 1905 when peaceful protesters marched to the Tsar's palace to demand reforms and better conditions. Russian troops fired on the crowd, killing many demonstrators and sparking widespread unrest. -
The Russian Revolution of 1905 occurred under Tsar Nicholas II after widespread protests and unrest across Russia. In response, the Tsar created the Duma, a legislative assembly intended to give citizens limited political representation. -
Russia suffered a surprising defeat against Japan in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). The loss weakened the authority of Tsar Nicholas II and helped trigger revolutionary movements within Russia. -
Britain, France, and Russia formed the Triple Entente, an alliance designed to counter the power of the Triple Alliance. This division of Europe into rival alliances increased the risk of large-scale war. -
Austria-Hungary officially annexed Bosnia, a region with many Slavic people who wanted independence. This angered Serbia and Russia and increased political tension in the Balkans. -
Several Balkan nations fought over territory previously controlled by the Ottoman Empire. These wars increased nationalism and instability in southeastern Europe.
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The heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne was assassinated in Sarajevo by a Serbian nationalist. This even triggered the alliance system in Europe and began World War I.
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