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The French Revolution began with the overthrow of the monarchy and the promotion of ideals like liberty, equality, and fraternity. These revolutionary ideas influenced many regions, where enslaved people and free blacks sought freedom and equality. -
The Haitian Revolution was a slave-led revolt against French colonial rule in Saint-Domingue. Under leaders like Toussaint Louverture, enslaved people gained their freedom and declared independence, making Haiti the first black-led republic. -
The Monroe Doctrine declared that the Americas were off-limits to European colonization. While intended to protect Latin American nations from imperial powers, it also marked the United States' growing influence in the region. -
The First Opium War broke out between Britain and China after the Qing government tried to suppress the illegal opium trade. Britain’s victory led to the Treaty of Nanjing, which ceded Hong Kong to Britain and opened several Chinese ports to trade. -
The treaty that ended the First Opium War was the first of the unequal treaties between China and foreign powers. Under this treaty, China had to pay Britain money, give up control of Hong Kong, and allow foreign trade with lowered tariffs. It showed how much control imperial powers had over China. -
Revolutionary movements surged across Latin America, with figures like Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín leading independence efforts earlier in the century. By 1848, many nations had thrown off Spanish rule, but the period also saw internal struggles. -
Commodore Matthew Perry of the United States forced Japan to open its ports to American trade with the Convention of Kanagawa. This event ended over two centuries of Japanese isolation under the Tokugawa Shogunate. -
Often called the Sepoy Mutiny, was a widespread uprising against British colonial rule. It was sparked by cultural disrespect and economic exploitation under the British East India Company. Although ultimately unsuccessful, it led to the British government taking direct control of India. -
The Meiji Restoration ended Japan’s feudal system and restored the emperor’s power. This period saw rapid industrialization and the adoption of Western technologies, transforming Japan into a powerful, modern state. -
European powers convened at the Berlin Conference to formalize territorial claims in Africa during the Scramble for Africa. Ignoring African sovereignty, the conference set rules for colonization, leading to widespread exploitation and resistance. -
Leaders formed the Indian National Congress to demand greater representation and rights under British rule. Initially moderate, the Congress would later lead India’s independence movement. -
King Leopold II of Belgium declared the Congo Free State as his personal property, exploiting its people and resources, especially rubber, he would chop off their hands if they didn't meet expectations. The brutal conditions drew global criticism, but significant reforms came only years later. -
Japan renegotiated treaties with Western powers, removing unequal clauses that had been imposed during its earlier interactions. This showcased Japan’s growing power and respect on the global stage. -
The war between Japan and China over control of Korea marked Japan’s rise as an imperial power. Japan’s victory exposed China’s weakening Qing Dynasty and solidified Japan’s influence in East Asia. -
At the Battle of Adwa, Ethiopian forces decisively defeated Italian invaders, securing their sovereignty. This was one of the few times an African nation successfully resisted European colonization during the Scramble for Africa. -
The United States fought Spain over Cuba’s independence, resulting in the U.S. gaining control of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. This marked the U.S.’s emergence as a global imperial power. -
The Boer War began as British forces sought control over the resource-rich Boer Republics in South Africa. The conflict highlighted the harsh realities of imperial conquest, including the use of concentration camps. -
The Boxer Rebellion was an anti-foreigner uprising driven by frustration with foreign control and economic exploitation. It was suppressed by an international coalition, further eroding China’s independence. -
The United States officially annexed Hawaii, previously an independent kingdom. This expanded U.S. territory in the Pacific and solidified its strategic presence in the region. -
Tensions between Russia and Japan over control of Korea and Manchuria escalated, leading to the Russo-Japanese War. This marked a critical moment as Japan prepared to challenge a major European power.