-
Colonial Development and Welfare Acts 1940 + 1945
Aimed to expand agricultural production + promote new technology in colonies -
Burns Constitution
Drawn up in the Gold Coast
Est. Legislative Council of 12 Br nominees + 18 elected African members
How... power still remained ultimately in the hands of the Governor-General -
Richards Constitution
Nigeria - Allowed greater African representation in form of Legislative Council but the GG + Executive Council retaining ultimate power 3 assemblies for each of the 3 major regions also established to debate local matters + to advise British governors on these regions -
Tanganyika Groundnut Scheme
Idea emerged to grow large quantities of groundnuts in Tanganyika which could be processed into oil + sold to world economy
Massive investment in tractors, equipment + railway construction
Terrain proved too difficult to cultivate + scheme abandoned in 1951 having cost £49 mill -
United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) created
UMNO created to argue for rights of Malay people in March 1946
Malay Chinese Association (MCA) + Malayan Communist Party (MCP) represented Chinese people -
Truman Doctrine
Truman requested $4000 economic assistance for Greece + Turkey from Congress -- pledged to 'support free people's who are resisting subjugation' signalled US determination to act as global leader + ended long term strategy of isolation
Provided relief for British support of monarchists in the Greek Civil war -
Burmese Independence
Talks following ww2 (Jan 1947) between Aung San and Atlee's government + agreed elections for a Constituent Assembly would take place in Apr 1948
Elections produced a huge AFPFL (Anti-Fascist People’s Freedom League) majority -- different factions within AFPFL could not agree + Aung San + 6 of his cabinet ministers assassinated by rival political faction
Jan 1948 - independence (against calm and measured withdrawal desired by Atlee) + rejected idea of joining the British Commonwealth -
Federation of Malaya
Est. 'Federation of Malaya Executive Council' = 7 official + 7 unofficial members headed by the British High Commissioner
'Federation of Malaya Legislative Council' = 62 members representing various states -- became an elected body in 1955
Governments within individual Malay states -- took over financial power of the central Colonial Administration -
Colonial Development Corporation (CDC) est.
Set up in order to co-ordinate major projects and develop self sustaining agriculture, industry + trade
Renamed the Commonwealth Development Corporation in 1963 -
State of Emergency in Malaya
Br frightened over damaging impact of rebel attacks on rubber plantations -- 'State of Emergency' declared in Jun 1948
Empowered colonial authorities to use military force + legal powers to arrest suspects and impose order on the country -
Marshall Plan 1948-52
Provided Br with $3.3 billion of support
Designed to assist in the rebuilding of post-war Europe with aim to prevent the spread of communism -
Mass Observation Survey 1948
Found that 25% of people in Britain were in contact with relatives in the Dominions -
British Nationality Act
gave full British citizenship and free entry to Britain to every member of the Commonwealth and Empire -
Empire Windrush
1,027 passengers in total (802 mostly male Caribbean passengers) arrived on Empire Windrush
Labour gov tried to block the ship (Atlee described the migrants as an 'incursion') +discussions took place whether workers could be sent to East Africa to harvest groundnuts (skilled/well-qualified workers) -- 11 MPs letter to Atlee warning 'influx' of migrants would 'impair the harmony, strength and cohesion of our public and social life'
Block attempts failed+authorities housed migrants in Clapham -
Convention People's Party (CPP) founded
Founded by Kwame Nkrumah + pressurised the British administration to make further concessions -- Legislative Council enlarged + renamed Legislative Assembly + electorate increased (Br governor still retained ultimate power) -
NATO established
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) established as an inter-governmental organisation but with an American Supreme Allied Commander Britain relied both on NATO + US nuclear capacity -
King Farouk renounced the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936
King Farouk independently renounced the AE Treaty 1936 + proclaimed himself King of Sudan -
Macpherson Constitution
Nigeria - extended the right to vote + created National Council of Ministers (answerable to a 185-seat Federal House of Representatives) -- simulated growth of Nigerian political parties Each region allowed its own gov + elected assembly which the Federal House could not overrule -- exacerbated tensions between different ethnicities -
Nkrumah released + CPP incorporated into gov
Nkrumah jailed in 1950 -- CPP won 2/3 of seats in Legislative Council in 1951
Clear to Burns (GG) that CPP had to brought into gov to decrease resistance
Nkrumah became PM in 1952 + CPP members given positions as government ministers
Gov given extensive control of internal affairs + Nkrumah's popularity grew -
Central African Federation created
Northern Rhodesia - mineral rich (copper)
Southern Rhodesia - agriculturally rich
Nyasaland - economically underdeveloped territory After ww2 Britain believed a joint administration would provide effective counter weight to S.Africa -- created idea of Central African Federation (created in 1953) -
Britain agreed to phased withdrawal from Suez Canal Zone
British agreed to phased withdrawal of troops from the Suez Canal Zone over the next 20 months (subject to certain rights of reoccupation in time of war)
Concession reflected British desire to improve Anglo-Arab relations + represented British economic difficulties) -
SEATO
SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organisation) was a counterpart to NATO for the collective defence of Southeast Asia against communism
Included Australia, France, NZ, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand, Br + USA -- acknowledged the need for a US led alliance
Dominions increasingly looked to US and away from Br as guarantees of their safety -
Commonwealth Games first took place
British Empire and Commonwealth Games replaced British Empire games in 1954 + were an international, multi-sport event involving athletes from commonwealth countries -
Reid Commission est
1952 + 1954 Malays + Chinese united against Br and together won 81% of votes in Federal elections in 1955
Br feared violent military rebellion + set up Reid Commission in 1955 to draw up a new democratic constitution (led by Lord William Reid) -
Baghdad Pact
Between Turkey, Pakistan, Iraq, Britain + Persia -- aimed to repel USSR threat to the Middle East
Nassar refused to sign pact + Egypt pressurised young Jordan kind (King Hussein) to remain out
Instead Egypt turned to Czechoslovakia for arms + signed an alliance with Syria -
Nasser made himself president of Egypt
June 1956 - Nasser declared himself President of Egypt - determined to establish Egypt as leading power in Middle East + plans for New Egypt centred around construction of Aswan High Dam (hope to be the centre of irrigation, flood control + electrification)
Jul 1956 - US (followed by Britain + World Bank) withdrew funding for Aswan High Dam due to Nasser's continued association with communist powers -
Suez Canal Crisis
Nasser announced nationalisation of Suez Canal (16 Jul 1956) -- direct blow to British government (held approx. 44% shares in company) + indirect blow by threatening British position in the Middle East -
Planned Removal of Nasser ('the Protocol of Sevres')
Oct 1956 -- Eden saw only route to security of Br/Fr interests was removal of Nasser
Plan -- Israel would attack Egypt on 29 Oct 1956 + following day Br + Fr would demand both sides stop fighting/withdraw troops -- Br+Fr invasion of area planned for 31 Oct to 'defend' the area
Br miscalculated international (US) reaction -- military action without informing US + US condemned the attack
Br announced ceasefire in 5 days + Br/Fr withdrew in weeks -- Eden forced to resign + UN moved in -
Malayan independence
Independent Malaya created following the Reid Commission
Continuing British military presence accepted in Singapore + Malaya remained in Sterling Area
Formal rule became informal influence (sometimes called the 'imperialism of decolonisation' - term coined by historians WM Roger Louis + Ronald Robinson) -
Gold Coast independence
1956 - plebiscite (direct vote by all members of the electorate on an important public question) in Togoland (Br mandate) in favour of the unification of the Gold Coast
Country became fully independent in Mar 1957 as Ghana -
Anglo-American Mutual Defence Agreement
Signed in 1958 + provided American assistance for the development of Britain's nuclear arsenal -
Riots in Notting Hill + Nottingham
'Teddy Boys' (gangs of white youths) attacked black people resulting in violent riots in Notting Hill + Nottingham Notting Hill Carnival -- after high racial tensions efforts made to improve community relations/encourage groups to mix socially -- 1964 = 1st Notting Hill Carnival set up by Caribbean immigrants -
Hola Camp atrocities
Camp housed Mau Mau prisoners would not relinquish their Mau Mau oaths--camp commander forced 88 prisoners (refused to obey orders to join rehabilitation schemes to undertake work or perform manual labour +when they resisted they were beaten by guards)--11 died+77 sustained serious injuries
Truth emerged that deaths were due to lung congestion and haemorrhage following multiple bruises/other injuries)-East African Standard had reported that deaths originated from drinking contaminated water -
'Winds of Change'
Speech given by British PM Harold MacMillan in Cape Town (SA) on 3 Feb 1960 -- warned SA white parliament that 'wind of change is blowing through this continent'
Ex of a shift in conservative thinking + signalled a withdrawal from Br colonies -- met with accusations of betrayal by Br conservatives -
Nigerian independence
Following federal elections in 1954 - gov consisted of 3 Br officials + 9 ministers drawn from various regional political parties -- following federal elections in 1959 moves made to full independence in Oct 1960 -
Lawrence of Arabia film
Told the adventures of Lawrence (famous for his role in ww1 in the middle east) + depicted him as torn between loyalty to King and Empire and to his Arab allies with whom he collaborated with to defeat the Turks
Film presented a more critical view of the empire -
Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962
Attempt from Conservative gov to appease the public and win support by controlling increasing non-white immigration -- free immigration from colonies was ended (even if individual held a British passport) + work permit/voucher scheme put in place
Irish exempt + most white immigrants able to obtain vouchers but Asian + African immigrants faced more difficulty (in the year after the act only 34,500 arrived in br)
Opinion polls indicated 70% of Br public supported the act -
Abolishment of Empire Day
Empire Day (24 May) abolished in 1962 -- familiarity and interest in empire decreased through 50s and 60s as Britain moved into period of decolonisation and society became much more subject to Americanisation -
Malaysia formed
Malaya united with Singapore, North Borneo + Sarawak to form Malaysia in 1963
Singapore expelled from federation in 1965 -
Central African Federation disbanded
1960-1 Britain ordered release of nationalist leaders imprisoned (who had emerged from all three territories in response to the creation of the CAF and limited African representation in the Federal Assembly) -- Br drew up new constitutions that paved the way for majority rule + independence
CAF dissolved in 1963 -
Polaris Sales Agreement
USA agreed to supply Britain with Polaris ballistic missiles for use in the Royal Navy submarines
Signed by US president JFK + Br PM Harold Macmillan -
Northern Rhodesia + Nyasaland independent
Kenneth Kaunda led Northern Rhodesia to independence as Zambia + Dr Hastings Banda led Nyasaland to independence as Malawi -
1965 Race Relations Act
Forbade discrimination in public places on grounds of 'colour, race or ethnic or national origins'
Discrimination in housing and employment were excluded + incitement to race hatred was not made a criminal offence
Complaints could be made to a Race Relation Board which would conciliate between the two sides -
Ian Smith declared an independent Southern Rhodesia
Rhodesian Front Party (dedicated to independence under white rule) won elections in 1961 + PM (Ian Smith) illegally declared Southern Rhodesia independent in in 1965 -
Establishment of a Commonwealth Secretary General + associated Secretariat
allowed coordination of Commonwealth activities + the Queen still held regular meetings with Heads of Government from Commonwealth countries -
Survey of North London in 1965
1/5 objected to working with a black or asian person
1/2 would refuse to live next door to a non-white person
9/10 disapproved of racially mixed marriages -
Race Relation Board
Set up to consider all aspects of race relations -- complied stats, produced reports and held hearings
Found difficultly in compelling witnesses to attend + out of 982 cases handled in 1st year 734 were dismissed due to lack of evidence
Those that were upheld were often cases surrounding racial stereotyping in advertising rather than direct examples of discrimination -
Sterling devaluation
Harold Wilson's (Labour) gov announced it was lowering the exchange rate so the pound became worth $2.40 (down from $2.80 -- cut of approx 14%) due to crisis resulting from Br spending more on imports than it gained from exports + lowering intended to cut Br deficits
Destruction of the 'sterling area' by weakening international faith in the value of sterling -
Guerrilla war in Southern Rhodesia
1969 - Rhodesia became a republic and country plunged into guerrilla war between ruling white population and black African nationalists