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Ross, N. (2022). Mills v. Board of Education of District of Columbia (1972). Embryo Project Encyclopedia. https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/mills-v-board-education-district-columbia-1972 Ross, N. (2022). Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Citizens (PARC) v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (1972). Embryo Project Encyclopedia. https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/pennsylvania-association-retarded-citizens-parc-v-commonwealth-pennsylvania-1972
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Klein, A. (2015). No Child Left Behind: An Overview. Education Week. https://www.edweek.org/policy-politics/no-child-left-behind-an-overview/2015/04 Oberti v. Board of Education of the Borough of Clementon. (n.d.). The Public Interest Law Center. https://pubintlaw.org/cases-and-projects/oberti-v-board-of-education-of-the-borough-of-clementon/
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Questions and Answers about the Department of Justice's Notice of Proposed Rulemaking to Implement the Americans with Disabilities Act Amendments Act of 2008. (n.d.). ADA. https://archive.ada.gov/nprm_adaaa/adaaa-nprm-qa.htm Yell, M. (2019). Brown v. Board of Education (1954) and the Development of Special Education. SPED Law Blog. https://spedlawblog.com/2019/07/20/brown-v-board-of-education-1954-and-the-development-of-special-education/
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Architectural Barriers Act (ABA). (n.d.). U.S. Department of Labor. https://www.dol.gov/agencies/oasam/centers-offices/civil-rights-center/dlms2-0600#:~:text=The%20Architectural%20Barriers%20Act%20(ABA,constructed%20in%20accordance%20with%20standards Gargiulo, R.M., Bouck, E.C. (2020) Special education in contemporary society: An introduction to exceptionality, pp. 40-50. SAGE Publications, Incorporated. ISBN: 9781071807321, 1071807324
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The Supreme Court decision that ruled segregation based on race was unequal and unconstitutional under the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The consensus was that education was a right that all citizens (regardless of "unalterable characteristics" (Yell, 2019) are entitled to. These words were interpreted and expanded to include individuals with disabilities. Image: Bettmann/Getty Images -
Everyone, including those with disabilities, benefits from schooling (Ross, 2022). All states must provide free, public education to individuals with developmental and intellectual disabilities (ages 6-21 (Gargiulo Bouck, 2020, p. 42). Students are protected under this case to receive an education in the least restrictive, "most integrated environment" (2020, p. 42). Image: Kids Together Inc -
Decided that all children with disabilities, regardless of the severity and extent, had the inherent right to receive a public education (Ross, 2022). The protections stretched to any disability, not just those considered "mentally retarded" (Ross, 2022). The expenses due to accommodations were also not a legitimate reason for students to be expelled from educational institutions. Image: Retrieved from Wrightslaw (2021) -
Prohibits "organizations, [institutions], and employers" (DHHS, n.d.) from discriminating against individuals with disabilities. People (of any age) requiring special assistance programs will not be denied in the workplace or schools, and their accommodations must not be made so they cannot work among the general population (Gargiulo Bouck, 2020, p. 50). Also expanded definition of "qualified individuals with disabilities" (n.d.). Image: Globaldisabilityrightsnow (n.d.) -
Provided federal funds to public schools for services for students with disabilities. Structured individualized plans are created to accommodate students' needs while mimicking the general education environment. It emphasized the importance of least restrictive environments and parental involvement concerning their children and ensured appropriate due process. Image: iStock -
Revision of PL 94-142 Education services were expanded to include individuals with disabilities from birth through five years. It introduced individualized family service plans (IFSPs) to assist and provide families and caretakers with services for their child(ren) with disabilities or developmental delays (Gargiulo Bouck, 2020, p. 45). Image: The Mighty -
Any public building, organization, or institution that is federally funded is required to be designed and built with appropriate accommodations for people with disabilities. Some examples of accommodations are ramps, lifts, elevators, braille signs, etc. This act allows people with special needs accessibility to enter, use, and leave areas of general use. Image: Retrieved from Sutori (n.d.) -
Emphasizes the role of least restrictive learning and mainstreaming for students with special needs. Students with severe disabilities should be integrated into general education classrooms "to the maximum extent appropriate" (Gargiulo Bouck, 2020, p. 42) unless they have been determined to not be able to make satisfactory progress even with additional assistance. This ruling ensures students with disabilities are receiving the most inclusive and beneficial education possible. Image: iStock -
First major name change of the PL 94-142 revisions. Added more conditions to the disability category and named services like "rehabilitation counseling and social work" relevant to assisting individuals with disabilities (Gargiulo Bouck, 2020, p. 45). It also created mandatory individualized transition plans (ITPs) to help young adults (16+) learn necessary skills as they leave school. New legislation now holds states liable if act is violated (2020, p. 45). Image: Above and Beyond Caring -
Forbids school districts from removing students with disabilities from the general education classroom without proper "justification and documentation" (Public Interest Law Center, n.d.). Segregating students from general education classrooms cannot occur before offering "supplementary aids and services" in said classroom first (Gargiulo Bouck, 2020, p. 42). If removal is required, schools should allow students to be as active in general activities as possible. Image: Alamy Stock Photo -
Revision of PL 94-142. Students with disabilities are encouraged to be involved in the general education classroom and are required to take part in assessments (Gargiulo Bouck, 2020, p. 45). Benchmarks are implemented to emphasize achievement. More teacher involvement regarding IEPs and transition planning is seen. Students with disabilities removed from school are still eligible for services (2020, p. 45). Image: Above and Beyond Caring -
Formerly known as the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965. Performance in schools is more federally watched to ensure student success. Assessments starting from third grade through high school will be administered to all students, including those with disabilities (Klein, 2015). The hope was to provide programs and services to institutions and individuals that scored lower to help all students achieve. Image: Retrieved from Vox (2015) -
Final reauthorization of PL 94-142. Much bigger emphasis on the achievements and performance of students with disabilities per state and national standards. "Highly "qualified" special education teachers, measurable and annual goals, and long-term IEPs are a few standards IDEA 2004 requires (Gargiulo Bouck, 2020, p. 48). IEPs used for students with disabilities should consist of quality services backed by research. Image: Center for Parent Information and Resources -
A revision to the former Americans with Disabilities Act (1990), the ADA amendments were intended to broaden the definition of disability to include and protect those with debilitating conditions such as cancer or epilepsy (ADA, n.d.). These individuals are now covered from being discriminated against, as their impairment may cause severe limitations to major life activities like walking, breathing, eating, etc. Image: ADA National Network (n.d.)