-
Intense cold during the Ice Age creates the Beringia land bridge between Siberia and Alaska.
-
Early human groups start moving across Beringia, likely following large game.
-
Glaciers cover much of North America; some groups settle in Beringia while others migrate further.
-
Climate warms slightly, but the Bering Strait remains passable for migration.
-
Ice sheets retreat, enabling groups to move south along the Pacific coast.
-
Distinct tools and cultural practices develop in the Americas.
-
Rising sea levels submerge Beringia; human settlements expand across the Americas.
-
Early Mesoamerican cultures begin forming complex societies.
-
-
-
Known for Monte Albán and early hieroglyphic writing in the Oaxaca Valley. -
-
-
Monte Albán becomes a cultural and political center in the Oaxaca Valley. -
Marked by the rise of the Toltecs and the decline of earlier civilizations.
-
The city reaches its peak, known for monumental architecture like the Pyramid of the Sun. -
The Inca build the largest empire in pre-Columbian Americas with advanced infrastructure.
-
Christopher Columbus reaches the Americas, marking the start of European exploration.
-
Spain and Portugal divide the newly discovered lands of the Americas.
-
Cortés allies with Indigenous groups to challenge the Aztec Empire.
-
Moctezuma II dies during a pivotal event in the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs.
-
-
Contribution: Introduced the federalist model and the separation of powers.
Inspired Mexican liberals in 1824 to structure a federal republic. -
Popularized the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity.
Inspired Mexican liberals to implement universal rights and the separation of church and state in 1857 and 1917. -
Introduced national sovereignty, separation of powers, and citizen representation.
Influenced both Mexican liberals and conservatives: liberals adopted its emphasis on citizens' rights, while conservatives valued its commitment to Catholicism. -
First liberal attempt to establish a Mexican constitutional framework.
Promoted popular sovereignty, individual rights, and a republican form of government, inspired by Cádiz. -
A conservative movement declaring Mexican independence.
Established Catholicism as the official religion and proposed a constitutional monarchy. -
Based on the federalist and republican model promoted by liberals.
Balanced tensions between liberals and conservatives by protecting Catholicism as the official religion. -
Texas secedes from Mexico after winning the Battle of San Jacinto.
-
France invades Mexico, blockading the port of Veracruz in retaliation for damages to French citizens in Mexico. -
Mexico loses nearly half of its territory after signing the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.
-
Resulted from the liberal victory over conservatives.
Established individual rights, eliminated ecclesiastical and military privileges, and formalized the separation of church and state.
Triggered the Reform War (1857–1860), where conservatives fought to restore church privileges and a centralist government. -
Internal conflict between liberals and conservatives weakens the country economically. -
Benito Juárez suspends debt payments to France, the United Kingdom, and Spain, triggering the French intervention.
-
Mexico defeats French troops on May 5, delaying the invasion. -
Napoleon III establishes a puppet government and offers the crown to Maximilian of Habsburg.
-
Maximilian arrives in Mexico with conservative support and the backing of the French army.
-
Benito Juárez regains control of Mexico; Maximilian is captured in Querétaro and executed on June 19. -
Napoleon III withdraws his army due to international pressure and the Franco-Prussian War.
-
A social movement focusing on land reform and labor rights, going beyond liberal-conservative divisions.
Led to the 1917 Constitution, which included unprecedented social and labor rights. -
Incorporated social demands from the Revolution.
Retained the liberal federalism of 1824 and introduced social justice principles inspired by the French Revolution and the Mexican Revolution.
Marked the end of direct conservative influence on Mexican constitutional design.