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- oldest philosophy of the Western culture
- refers to the world of mind and ideas, where reason is primary
- Socrates, Plato, Augustine
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- antithesis of idealism
- the Universe exists whether the mind perceives it or not
- Aristotle, Francis Bacon, John Locke, Comenius
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- God exists and can be known through faith and reason
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- revolt against the mathematical, scientific philosophies that preceded it
- Soren Kierkegaard, Martin Buber, Edmund Husserl
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- a.k.a. existentialism
- experience of things that work
- Auguste Comte, Charles Darwin, Charles Peirce, William Kames, John Dewey
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- sought out to clarify and define philosophies and studied the alienation between philosophy and science
