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Den islamiske kalender siges ofte fejlagtigt at starte med denne begivenhed og benævnes AH (After Hijra).
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Muslims capture Mecca. Ka'ba is cleansed, pilgrimage rites are Islamicized, tribes of Arabia vow allegiance to Muhammad https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conquest_of_Mecca
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The Rashidun Caliphate was the Islamic caliphate in the earliest period of Islam, comprising the first five caliphs—the "Rightly Guided"...It was founded after Muhammad's death in 632 ACE (year 11 AH in the Islamic calendar). At its height, the Caliphate controlled an empire from the Arabian Peninsula and the Levant, to the Caucasus in the north, North Africa from Egypt to present-day Tunisia in the west, and the Iranian plateau to Central Asia in the east.
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A few months after the farewell pilgrimage, Muhammad fell ill and suffered for several days with fever, head pain, and weakness. He died on Monday, 8 June 632, in Medina, at the age of 62 or 63, in the house of his wife Aisha.[185] With his head resting on Aisha's lap, he asked her to dispose of his last worldly goods (seven coins), then spoke his final words:
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Abu Bakr var født i Mekka, en quraishi af Banu Taim-klanen. Ifølge tidlige muslimske historikere var han en handelsmand og højt anerkendt som dommer, som tolker af drømme og som en, som var lærd i Mekkas traditioner. Han var en af de sidste personer, man ville have forventet skulle konvertere til troen prædiket af hans stammefrænde Muhammed. Alligevel var han en af de første, som konverterede til Islam og central i konverteringen til mange af quraisher og indbyggere i Mekka.
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His legislative abilities, firm political and administrative control over a rapidly expanding empire and his brilliantly coordinated multi-prong attacks against the Sassanid Persian Empire that resulted in the conquest of the Persian empire in less than two years, marked his reputation as a great political and military leader. Among his conquests are Jerusalem, Damascus, and Egypt. He was killed by a Persian captive.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashidun#.E2.80.98Umar_ibn_al-Khattab -
The rise of Muslims coincided with a significant political, social, economic and military weakness in Persia. the Sasanian Empire had exhausted its human and material resources after decades of warfare against the Byzantine Empire.
Due to continuous raids by Persians into the area, Caliph Umar ordered a full invasion of the Sasanian empire in 642, which led to the complete conquest of the Sasanians around 651 -
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashidun#.E2.80.98Uthman_ibn_.E2.80.98Affan
Uthman was no warrior, but he was an efficient administrator. His most influential achievement was the creation of the first definitive written edition of the Koran, completed by 650.
Myrdes i 656 som følge af nepotistisk favorisering i form af tildeling af lukrative embeder til egne familiemedlemmer. -
‘Ali then transferred his capital from Medinah to Kufah, the Muslim garrison city in what is now Iraq. The capital of the province of Ash-Sham, Damascus, was held by Mu'awiyah, the governor of Syria and a kinsman of ‘Uthman, ‘Ali's slain predecessor...
First Fitnah was ended after a concession between ‘Ali's son and successor, Al-Hasan, and Mu‘awiyah. ‘Ali was assassinated, by Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam, a Kharijite 661 CE
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashidun#.E2.80.98Ali_ibn_Abi_Talib -
This caliphate was centred on the Umayyad dynasty (....."Sons of Umayya"), hailing from Mecca. The Umayyad family had first come to power under the third caliph, Uthman ibn Affan (r. 644–656), but the Umayyad regime was founded by Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan, long-time governor of Syria, after the end of the First Muslim Civil War in AD 661/41 AH. Syria remained the Umayyads' main power base thereafter, and Damascus was their capital.
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Later, Al-Husain did not accept the request of Mu‘awiyah for the succession of his son, Yazid I, and considered this action a breach of the Hasan–Muawiya treaty.[1] When Mu‘awiyah died in 680 ACE, Al-Husayn refused to pledge allegiance to Yazid, who had just been appointed as Umayyad caliph by Mu‘awiyah, because the Umayyads were reportedly an oppressive and religiously misguided regime. He insisted on his legitimacy based on his own special position as a direct descendant of Muhammad
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Andalusia#Islamic_rule
Córdoba was captured in 711[13] by a Moorish army. Unlike other Iberian towns, no capitulation was signed and the position was taken by storm. Córdoba was in turn governed by direct Moorish rule. The new Moorish commanders established themselves within the city and in 716 it became a provincial capital, subordinate to the Caliphate of Damascus; in Arabic it was known as قرطبة (Qurṭubah). -
The Battle of Tours (10 October 732)[17] — also called the Battle of Poitiers and, by Arab sources, the Battle of the Palace of the Martyrs (Arabic: معركة بلاط الشهداء, translit. Ma'arakat Balāṭ ash-Shuhadā’)[18][19][20] — was fought between Frankish and Burgundian[21][22] forces under Charles Martel against an army of the Umayyad Caliphate led by 'Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, Governor-General of al-Andalus... https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tours
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...was the third of the Islamic caliphates to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The Abbasid dynasty descended from Muhammad's youngest uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566–653 CE), from whom the dynasty takes its name.[1] They ruled as caliphs, for most of their period from their capital in Baghdad in modern-day Iraq, after assuming authority over the Muslim empire from the Umayyads in 750 CE (132 AH).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate -
By the beginning of the 10th century, development of Sunni jurisprudence prompted leading Sunni jurists to state that the main legal questions had been addressed and the scope of ijtihad was gradually restricted:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijtihad#Classical_era -
900: Charlemagne krones som Kejser. Riget lever frem til 942
962: Otto krones som kejser af Pave Johannes XII/d.12. Herefter lever Romerriget frem til 1806, hvor Franz d. II, ruling from 1792 until 6 August 1806, when he dissolved the Holy Roman Empire after the decisive defeat at the hands of the First French Empire led by Napoleon at the Battle of Austerlitz.
Billedet er Romerrigets udstrækning cirka 1600 -
Fatimids gain power in Egypt and attack Palestine, Syria, and Arabia. Cairo (Al-Qahira, "the victorious city") is founded.
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The ecclesiastical differences and theological disputes between the Greek East and Latin West pre-dated the formal rupture that occurred in 1054. Prominent among these were the issues of the source of the Holy Spirit, whether leavened or unleavened bread should be used in the Eucharist,[a] the Bishop of Rome's claim to universal jurisdiction, and the place of the See of Constantinople in relation to the Pentarchy.[8]
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Periode af stridigheder mellem forskellige kejsere, konger og pavesædet, fra 1000-tallet helt frem til 1300-tallet, med skiftende magtsejre på hhv. kirkens og kongernes side
1077 er et godt år, idet Henrik IV føler sig nødsaget til at gå bodsgang på paven for at bevare sin magt.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investiture_Controversy
http://denstoredanske.dk/Sprog%2c_religion_og_filosofi/Religion_og_mystik/Romersk-katolske_kirkeforhold_mm./Romersk-katolske_kirke/Bonifacius_8 -
The Crusades were a series of religious wars sanctioned by the Latin Church in the medieval period, especially the campaigns in the Eastern Mediterranean with the aim of recovering the Holy Land from Islamic rule. The term "Crusades" is also applied to other church-sanctioned campaigns fought to combat paganism and heresy or to resolve conflict among rival Roman Catholic groups, or to gain political or territorial advantage.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusades -
The People's Crusade was the prelude to the First Crusade and lasted roughly six months from April to October 1096. It is also known as the Peasants' Crusade, Paupers' Crusade or the Popular Crusade as it was not part of the official Catholic Church-organised expeditions that came later. Led primarily by Peter the Hermit with forces of Walter Sans Avoir, the army was destroyed by the Seljuk forces of Kilij Arslan at Civetot, northwestern Anatolia.
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possession, Acre, was destroyed by the Mamluks, but its history is divided into two distinct periods. The sometimes so-called First Kingdom of Jerusalem lasted from 1099 to 1187, when it was almost entirely overrun by Saladin. After the subsequent Third Crusade, the kingdom was re-established in Acre in 1192, and lasted until that city's destruction in 1291, except for a brief two decades which Frederick II of Hohenstaufen reclaimed Jerusalem back into Christian hands after the Sixth Crusade.
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Islam er verdens folkerigeste muslimske nation. (255 millioner, 87% muslimer) Although Muslim traders first travelled through Southeast Asia early in the Islamic era, the earliest evidence of Islamised populations in Indonesia dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra.[39] Other Indonesian areas gradually adopted Islam, and it was the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century.
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created and Baldwin of Flanders was crowned Emperor Baldwin I of Constantinople. Byzantine aristocrats also established a number of small independent splinter states, one of them being the Empire of Nicaea, which recaptured Constantinople in 1261 and proclaimed the reinstatement of the Empire. However, the restored Empire would never return to its former territorial or economic status, and eventually fell to the rising Ottoman Sultanate in the 1453 Siege of Constantinople.
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During the reconquista, the siege of Córdoba (1236) was a successful investment by the forces of Ferdinand III, king of Castile and León, marking the end of the Islamic rule over the city that had begun in 711.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_C%C3%B3rdoba_(1236) -
Historians have traditionally broken the era of Mamlūk rule into two periods—one covering 1250–1382, the other, 1382–1517. Western historians call the former the "Baḥrī" period and the latter the "Burjī"... Contemporary Muslim historians refer to the same divisions as the "Turkish"[7][8][9][10][11] and "Circassian" periods in order to stress the change in the ethnic origins of the majority of Mamlūks
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo) -
The Mongols were under the command of Hulagu Khan (or Hulegu Khan), brother of the khagan Möngke Khan, who had intended to further extend his rule into Mesopotamia but not to directly overthrow the Caliphate. Möngke, however, had instructed Hulagu to attack Baghdad if the Caliph Al-Musta'sim refused Mongol demands for his continued submission to the khagan and the payment of tribute in the form of military support for Mongol forces in Iran.
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The Ottoman Empire was an empire and a great power, founded at the end of the thirteenth century in northwestern Anatolia in the vicinity of Bilecik and Söğüt by the Oghuz Turkish tribal leader Osman.[12] After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror.[13]
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The Ottoman Empire was an empire and a great power, founded at the end of the thirteenth century in northwestern Anatolia in the vicinity of Bilecik and Söğüt by the Oghuz Turkish tribal leader Osman. After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror.
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They began as an elite corps of slaves made up of conscripted young Christian boys, and became famed for internal cohesion cemented by strict discipline and order. Unlike typical slaves, they were paid regular salaries. Forbidden to marry or engage in trade, their complete loyalty to the Sultan was expected. By the seventeenth century, due to a dramatic increase in the size of the Ottoman standing army, the corps' initially strict recruitment policy was relaxed.
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The Janissaries (Ottoman Turkish: يڭيچرى yeñiçeri [jeniˈt͡ʃeɾi], meaning "new soldier") were elite infantry units that formed the Ottoman Sultan's household troops and bodyguards. The corps was most likely established during the reign of Murad I (1362–89). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janissaries
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and there was ongoing warfare in northern Europe along the Baltic coast. After their victory at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, the Ottomans had conquered most of the Balkans, and had reduced the Byzantine Empire to the area immediately surrounding Constantinople, which they later proceeded to besiege (in 1390, 1395, 1397, 1400, 1411, 1422 and finally conquering the Byzantine capital in 1453).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Kosovo -
crusader army of Hungarian, Croatian, Bulgarian, Wallachian, French, English, Burgundian, German and assorted troops at the hands of an Ottoman force, raising of the siege of the Danubian fortress of Nicopolis and leading to the end of the Second Bulgarian Empire...It is also referred to as the Crusade of Nicopolis as it was one of the last large-scale Crusades of the Middle Ages, together with the Crusade of Varna in 1443–1444.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Nicopolis -
Johannes Gutenberg's work on the printing press began in approximately 1436 when he partnered with Andreas Dritzehn—a man who had previously instructed in gem-cutting—and Andreas Heilmann, owner of a paper mill.[33] However, it was not until a 1439 lawsuit against Gutenberg that an official record existed; witnesses' testimony discussed Gutenberg's types, an inventory of metals (including lead), and his type molds.[33]
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mod den forsvarende hær under ledelse af den byzantinske kejser Konstantin XI Palaiologos. Belejringen varede fra fredag, den 6.april, 1453 indtil tirsdag den 29 maj, 1453, indtil byen blev erobret af osmannerne.
Tilfangetagelsen af Konstantinopel markerede afslutningen på det Byzantinske Rige. Samtidig var det, sammen med belejringen af Beograd også et massivt slag for kristenheden. Efter erobringen gjorde Mehmed Konstantinopel til hovedstad i det osmanniske rige. -
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Efter flere krige og besættelser blev Persien igen uafhængigt i år 1500 i form af Safavide-dynastiet og andre linjer af konger eller shaher. Persisk sprog og kultur blevet vedligeholdt takket være det episke værk Shahnameh (Kongernes Bog) af den persiske digter Ferdowsi.
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The Age of Discovery... from the end of the 15th century to the 18th century, was an informal and loosely defined European historical period marking the time period in which extensive overseas exploration emerged as a powerful factor in European culture...the rise of the period of widespread belief in Europe of the philosophies of Colonialism and Mercantilism. Many lands previously unknown to Europeans were discovered during this period, though most were already inhabited
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Isma'il (1487-1524) claims to be the Hidden Imam and is proclaimed Shah (king) of Persia. Twelver Shi'ism becomes official religion of Persia.
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1520-1566: Reign of Suleyman the Magnificent; Ottoman Empire reaches its zenith. Hungary and coastlands of Algeria and Tunisia come under Ottoman rule.
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Jorden er nu bevist ved sejlads at være en kugle - det europæiske verdensbillede radikalt ændret
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22.000-48.000 mand, de sejlede til Malta fra Istanbul i en af de største armadaer siden antikkens tid...tyrkerne forstærkning af nordafrikanske pirater. Forsvarerne: Johanitterriddere, lokale maltesere og spanske tropper: 6.100-8.500....trak tyrkerne sig den 11. september 1568. osm. døde: 20.000-25.000. Malta: ca 2.500 soldater og ca 7.000 civile. Hovedstaden på Malta, Valetta, er opkaldt efter johanitterordenens leder af forsvaret, Jean de Valette.
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During the turn of the 16th to 17th century, Sunni Muslim reformers began to criticize taqlid, and promoted greater use of ijtihad in legal matters. They claimed that instead of looking solely to previous generations for practices developed by religious scholars, there should be an established doctrine and rule of behavior through the interpretation of original foundational texts of Islam—the Qur'an and Sunna....
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijtihad#Modern_era -
under the command of King John III Sobieski against the invading Muslim Ottoman Empire and its vassal and tributary states. The battle marked the first time the Commonwealth and the Holy Roman Empire had cooperated militarily against the Ottomans, and it is often seen as a turning point in history, after which "the Ottoman Turks ceased to be a menace to the Christian world". In the ensuing war that lasted until 1699, the Ottomans lost almost all of Hungary to the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I.
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who is widely recognised as one of the most influential scientists of all time and a key figure in the scientific revolution. His book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ("Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy"), first published in 1687, laid the foundations of classical mechanics. Newton also made seminal contributions to optics, and he shares credit with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz for developing the infinitesimal calculus.
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1700s Muhammad Abd al-Wahhab rejects Sufism and all innovation (bid'a). Founds what becomes the Saudi Arabian kingdom. Hindus regain power from Mughals in northern India.
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when Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab and Prince Muhammad bin Saud formed an alliance to establish a new religious sect and political sovereignty against orthodox Sunni Islam. In 1744, both Muhammed bin Abd Al Wahhab and Muhammad bin Saud took an oath to achieve their goal. Marriage between Muhammad bin Saud's son, Abdul-Aziz bin Muhammad, and the daughter of the Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab helped to seal the pact between their families which has lasted through the centuries to present day.
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Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu (18 January 1689 – 10 February 1755), was a French lawyer, man of letters, and political philosopher who lived during the Age of Enlightenment. He is famous for his articulation of the theory of separation of powers, which is implemented in many constitutions throughout the world. He is also known for doing more than any other author to secure the place of the word despotism in the political lexicon.
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Influenced by Bossuet's Discourse on the Universal History (1682), he was the first scholar to make a serious attempt to write the history of the world, eliminating theological frameworks, and emphasizing economics, culture and political history.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire#Writings -
In all, Niebuhr devoted ten years of his life, the years 1768-1778, to the publication of six volumes of findings from the expedition. He had virtually no help from the academics who had conceived and shaped the expedition in Göttingen and Copenhagen. It was only Niebuhr's determination to publish the findings of the expedition that ensured that the Danish Arabia Expedition would produce results that would benefit the world of scholarship.[1]
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Carsten Niebuhr drager afsted på ekspedition til Yemen
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the royal authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay.
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The Russo–Turkish War of 1787–1792 involved an unsuccessful attempt by the Ottoman Empire to regain lands lost to Russian Empire in the course of the previous Russo-Turkish War (1768–74). It took place concomitantly with the Austro-Turkish War of 1787–91.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1787%E2%80%931792) -
he war began as a Russian-Turkish conflict. The Russian Empire, headed by Catherine the Great, had been involved in previous wars of aggression and conquest against the Ottomans, and the two nations were openly hostile.
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The Revolution overthrew the monarchy, established a republic, experienced violent periods of political turmoil, and finally culminated in a dictatorship under Napoleon that rapidly brought many of its principles to Western Europe and beyond. Inspired by liberal and radical ideas, the Revolution profoundly altered the course of modern history, triggering the global decline of absolute monarchies while replacing them with republics and liberal democracies.
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In the final negotiated outcome, Treaty of Sistova, Austria's gains were "meagre": Austria returned almost all the territory from its conquests
The Russians won new territory along the Black Sea. For the Ottomans, the war was a salient event in a long period of national decline
Serbia had been under Ottoman rule before the war, was closely fought over, and remained an Ottoman possession after the final treaty settlement. The war was to have important consequences for the future of Serbia. -
Hans flåde knuses af den britiske, der også har valgt at lægge til i samme bugt - Napoleon vender tilbage til Frankrig, men hans ekspedition forbliver i Egypten til 1801.
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Tahtawi, Kheredinne Tunis
Afghani Abduh-Zaghlouf
Rashid Rida --> Hassan al-Banna (Muslim Brotherhood)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashid_Rida
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hassan_al-Banna
Kawakibi - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Kawakibi -
Muhammed Ali var en albansk officer, NK for en osmannisk hærenhed sendt til Egypten for at evakuere franskmændene i 1801. Bliver udnævnt som guvernør over Egypten, provins i Osmannerriget.
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It comprised a selected group of U.S. Army volunteers under the command of Captain Meriwether Lewis and his close friend, Second Lieutenant William Clark. Their perilous journey lasted from May 1804 to September 1806. The primary objective was to explore and to map the newly acquired territory, to find a practical route across the western half of the continent, and to establish an American presence in this territory before Britain and other European powers tried to claim it.
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In 1807 a Janissary revolt deposed Sultan Selim III, who had tried to modernize the army along Western European lines.[36] This modern army Selim III created was called Nizam-ı Cedid. His supporters failed to recapture power before Mustafa IV had him killed, but elevated Mahmud II to the throne in 1808
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Muhammad Alis søn, Ibrahim - en genial militærstrateg og fører - genvinder kontrollen over Mecca og Medina fra wahhabierne på ordre fra den osmanniske sultan Mahmud II.
"the Ottoman empire, suspicious of the ambitious Muhammed Ali, instructed him to fight the Wahhabis, as the defeat of either would be beneficial to them."
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Wahhabi_War -
in Nejd, the regions of Riyadh and Ha'il of what is now Saudi Arabia. Saudi rule was restored to central and eastern Arabia after the Emirate of Diriyah, the First Saudi State, having previously been brought down by the Ottoman Empire's Egypt Eyalet in the Ottoman–Wahhabi War (1811–1818).
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Many student missions from Egypt went to Europe in the early 19th century to study arts and sciences at European universities and acquire technical skills such as printing, shipbuilding and modern military techniques. According to his memoir Rihla (Journey to Paris), Tahtawi studied ethics, social and political philosophy, and mathematics and geometry. He read works by Condillac, Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu and Bézout among others during his séjour in France.
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The Auspicious Incident (or Event (Turkish: (in Istanbul) Vaka-i Hayriye "Fortunate Event"; (in the Balkans) Vaka-i Şerriyye, "Unfortunate Incident") was the forced disbandment of the centuries-old Janissary corps by Sultan Mahmud II on 15 June 1826.[2][3] Most of the 135,000 Janissaries revolted against Mahmud II, and after the rebellion was suppressed, its leaders killed, and many members exiled or imprisoned, the Janissary corps was disbanded and replaced with a more modern military forced.
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He founded the School of Languages in 1835 and was influential in the development of science, law, literature and Egyptology in 19th-century Egypt. His work influenced that of many later scholars including Muhammad Abduh.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rifa'a_al-Tahtawi -
...published long after Niebuhr's death....Niebuhr also contributed papers on the interior of Africa, the political and military condition of the Ottoman Empire, and other subjects to a German periodical, the Deutsches Museum. In addition, he edited and published the work of his friend Peter Forsskål, the naturalist on the Arabian expedition, under the titles Descriptiones animalium, Flora Aegyptiaco-Arabica and Icones rerum naturalium (Copenhagen, 1775 and 1776).
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characterized by various attempts to modernize the Ottoman Empire and to secure its territorial integrity against nationalist movements from within and aggressive powers from outside of the state
The reforms sought to grant emancipation to non-Muslim subjects of the Empire and to integrate non-Turks more thoroughly into Ottoman society by enhancing their civil liberties and granting them equality throughout the Empire.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanzimat -
The Tanzimât ("reorganization") was a period of reformation that began in 1839 and ended with the First Constitutional Era in 1876...various attempts to modernize the Ottoman Empire and to secure its territorial integrity against nationalist movements from within and aggressive powers from outside of the state. The reforms encouraged Ottomanism among the diverse ethnic groups of the Empire, attempting to stem the tide of nationalist movements within the Ottoman Empire.
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Diverse reformer. TIltag til en forfatning, der først realiseres og skrives i 1876. Denne afskaffes allerede mindre end to år senere i 1878 af Sultan Abdul Hamid II, som dermed afskaffer det osmanniske riges første konstitutionelle monarki.
Abdul Hamid II afsættes af Ungtyrkerne i 1909 (kuppet i 1908) og det konstitutionelle monarki genindføres -
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Motiveret af de europæiske forfatninger qua de osmanniske ambassadører og bureaukrater og diplomater mm., der har absorberet de europæiske ideer, får diverse progressive og Ungosmannerne forfattet og indført en forfatning, der lægger vægt på begrebet om OSMANNEREN (tilhørsforholdet til riget vigtigere end tilhørsforholdet til islam)
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In accordance with an agreement made with the republican Young Ottomans, he promulgated the first Ottoman constitution of 1876 on 23 December 1876. Soon, however, he claimed Western influence on Ottoman affairs and citing disagreements with the Parliament, Abdul Hamid suspended both the constitution and Parliament in 1878, ending the first constitutional era of the Ottoman Empire. Abdul Hamid's 1909 removal from the throne was hailed by most Ottoman citizens
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After the war with Russia, Abdulhamid suspended the constitution in February 1878, and he also dismissed the parliament after its solitary meeting in March 1877. For the next three decades, the Ottoman Empire was ruled by Abdulhamid from Yıldız Palace.[1]
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Stormagterne Tyskland, Østrig-Ungarn, Frankrig, Italien, Storbritanien, Rusland og det Osmanniske Rige. Formålet var et ordne forholdene i Østeuropa på en for nogle magter mere tilfredsstillende måde (særlig Storbritannien og Østrig-Ungarn), end fredsaftalen mellem Rusland og Det Osmanniske Rige fra samme år.
Udover de nævnte stormagter deltog de lande, hvis områder ville blive berørt, i de konkrete forhandlinger om områderne: Grækenland, Rumænien, Serbien, Montenegro samt Armenien og Persien. -
This reformed ijtihad and its new ideals were put forward by Islamic modernists such as Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan, Jamal al-din Al-Afghani, and Muhammad Abduh in response to elements of modernization. These thinkers all wanted to reconcile Islamic traditions with the rapid pace of the modernizing world. Yet, it was truly Al-Afghani who proposed the new ijtihad we see today. He argued that Islam could be reconciled with modernization by utilizing the concept of ijtihad.
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...after the French claimed that Tunisian troops had crossed the border into their colony of Algeria. Tunisia later received its independence from France on March 20, 1956.
Dette samt Storbritanniens indblanding i Egypten i 1882 og militære fjendtligheder med Rusland (altså samlet set Tripelententen) leder det Osmanniske Rige mod at favorisere en alliance med Tyskland. -
..."British invasion was ordered in order to quell the perceived anarchy of the ‘Urabi Revolt, as well to protect British control over the Suez Canal in order to maintain its shipping route to the Indian Ocean."
British troops then occupied Egypt until the Anglo–Egyptian Treaty of 1922 and Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936, giving gradual control back to the government of Egypt. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_War#Reasons_for_the_invasion -
he scandal began in December 1894, with the treason conviction of Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a young French artillery officer of Alsatian and Jewish descent. Sentenced to life imprisonment for allegedly communicating French military secrets to the German Embassy in Paris, Dreyfus was imprisoned on Devil's Island in French Guiana, where he spent nearly five years.
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The book argued that the Jewish people should leave Europe if they wished to, either for Argentina or, preferably, for Palestine, their historic homeland. The Jews possessed a nationality; all they were missing was a nation and a state of their own.Only through a Jewish state could they avoid antisemitism, express their culture freely and practice their religion without hindrance. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Herzl#Herzl.2C_Zionism_and_the_Holy_Land
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Knox_D%27Arcy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%27Arcy_Concession
William Knox D'Arcy (11 October 1849 – 1 May 1917) was one of the principa for oil and minerals in Persia headed by Wolff, Kitabgi and Cotte. Negotiations with the Mozaffar al-Din Shah Qajar began in 1901 and with the offer of £20,000 for a sixty-year concession to explore for oil—the D'Arcy concession—In exchange the Iranian government was given 16% of the oil company's annual profits -
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%27Arcy_Concession
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Knox_D%27Arcy
headed by Wolff, Kitabgi and Cotte. Negotiations with the Mozaffar al-Din Shah Qajar began in 1901. The concession stipulated that William D'Arcy would have the oil rights to the entire country except for five provinces in Northern Iran. In exchange the Iranian government was given 16% of the oil company's annual profits, -
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Turk_Revolution
The Young Turk Revolution (July 1908) of the Ottoman Empire was when the Young Turks movement restored the Ottoman constitution of 1876 and ushered in multi-party politics in a two stage electoral system (electoral law) under the Ottoman parliament. More than 3 decades earlier in 1876, constitutional monarchy had been established under Sultan Abdul Hamid II during a period of time known as the First Constitutional Era, which only last -
Tripelententen: England, Frankrig, Rusland
samt USA og Japan, Serbvien, Monte Negro, Rumænien, Belgien, Holland, Portugal, Italien, Hejaz-kongeriget (Sharif of Mecca, opstår som kongerige i 1916 og omfanger den arabiske halvøs sydlige kyst, herunder Mekka, Medina)
vs.
Østrig-Ungarn/Tyskland/Osmannerriget ophører som kejserriger/imperier (ligeså Rusland som imperie)
Woodrov Wilsons League of Nations/Folkeforbundet udkom af WWII. -
The Armenian Genocide was the Ottoman government's systematic extermination of 1.5 million Armenians, mostly Ottoman citizens within the Ottoman Empire and its successor state, the Republic of Turkey. The starting date is conventionally held to be 24 April 1915, the day that Ottoman authorities rounded up, arrested, and deported 235 to 270 Armenian intellectuals and community leaders from Constantinople to the region of Ankara, the majority of whom were eventually murdered.
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The McMahon–Hussein Correspondence, or the Hussein–McMahon Correspondence, was a series of ten letters exchanged from 14 July 1915 to 30 January 1916, during World War I, between Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca, and Sir Henry McMahon, British High Commissioner in Egypt, concerning the political status of lands under ..
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McMahon%E2%80%93Hussein_Correspondence 1915, 14. juli til 30. januar 1916 -
Foreign Office 9/2 1917
Dear Lord Rothschild,...His Majesty's Government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavors to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country.
...
Arthur J. Balfour -
On 11 November, at 5:00 am, an armistice with Germany was signed in a railroad carriage at Compiègne. At 11 am on 11 November 1918—"the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month"—a ceasefire came into effect. During the six hours between the signing of the armistice and its taking effect, opposing armies on the Western Front began to withdraw from their positions, but fighting continued along many areas of the front, as commanders wanted to capture territory before the war ended.
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officially called the 1919 Inter-Allied Commission on Mandates in Turkey, began as an outgrowth of the 1919 Paris Peace Conference, and ended as an official investigation solely by the United States government concerning the disposition of non-Turkish areas within the former Ottoman Empire.[1] It was conducted to inform American policy about the region's people and their desired future in regard to the previously decided partitioning of the Ottoman Empire and the League of Nations Mandate System
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The San Remo conference was an international meeting of the post-World War I Allied Supreme Council, held at Villa Devachan in Sanremo, Italy, from 19 to 26 April 1920. It was attended by the four Principal Allied Powers of World War I...England-France-Italy-Japan (USA som observatør)
Resolutions passed at this conference determined the allocation of Class "A" League of Nations mandates for administration of the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire territories in the Middle East. -
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Lebanon
When the Ottoman Empire was formally split up by the Treaty of Sèvres in 1920, it was decided that four of its territories in the Middle East should be League of Nations mandates temporarily governed by the United Kingdom and France on behalf of the League. The British were given Palestine and Iraq, while the French were given a mandate over Syria and Lebanon. -
http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/oil-giants-return-to-iraq-851036.html But they mean that the four oil companies, which originally formed the Iraq Petroleum Company to exploit Iraqi oil from the 1920s until the industry's nationalisation in 1972, will be well-placed to bid for contracts for the long-term development of these fields.
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Afsættes kort derefter af franskmændene, som tager Syrien som fransk protektorat. Faisal tager til Iraq, som han gives som kompensation for tabet af Syrien.
al-Husri følger ham. Faisal bliver konge over Irak i 1921 -
...but in the end the UK and France divided up the area under the Sykes–Picot Agreement—an act of betrayal in the eyes of the Arabs. Further confusing the issue was the Balfour Declaration of 1917, promising British support for a Jewish "national home" in Palestine. At the war's end the British and French set up a joint "Occupied Enemy Territory Administration" in what had been Ottoman Syria. The British achieved legitimacy through a mandate from the League of Nations in June 1922
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The Treaty of Sèvres was one of a series of treaties that the nations constituting the Central Powers signed after their defeat in World War I. Hostilities had already ended with the Armistice of Mudros. The treaty was signed on 10 August 1920...in Sèvres, France...The Sèvres treaty marked the beginning of the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, and its ultimate annihilation https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_S%C3%A8vres
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On 11 November 1920, Iraq became a League of Nations mandate under British control with the name "State of Iraq".
The British established the Hashemite king, Faisal I of Iraq, who had been forced out of Syria by the French, as their client ruler. Likewise, British authorities selected Sunni Arab elites from the region for appointments to government and ministry offices. -
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folkeforbundet
fremme internationalt samarbejde, arbejde for nedrusting, at hjælpe flygtninge samt andet humanitært arbejde.
26 stater var medlemmer i forbundet fra begyndelsen; i løbet af tyverne var 55 stater med. Det højeste antal var 58 i 1934. USA kom aldrig med.
Den første generalforsamling blev afholdt i Genève 15. november 1920. Her lå Forbundets hovedsæde. Forbundet opløstes formelt 18. april 1946 og overførte sine målsætninger til de Forenede Nationer. -
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Får selvstændighed i 1991
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Under Atatürks ledelse opførtes tusinder af skoler, skolegangen i Tyrkiet blev obligatorisk (samt gratis), kvinder fik overdraget lige civile- og politiske rettigheder, det arabiske alfabet blev erstattet af det latinske alfabet, ... borgere blev påbudt et arveligt efternavn. Samtidig blev skatterne for landbefolkningen reduceret. Atatürks regering gennemførte en omfattende tyrkificeringspolitik
... i bestræbelserne på at transformere det Osmanniske Rige til en sekulær nation. -
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He reconquered his family's ancestral home city of Riyadh in 1902, starting three decades of conquests that made him the ruler of nearly all of central Arabia. He consolidated his control over the Najd in 1922, then conquered the Hejaz in 1925. He extended his dominions into, what later became, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932.
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Britain granted independence to the Kingdom of Iraq in 1932,[49] on the urging of King Faisal, though the British retained military bases, local militia in the form of Assyrian Levies, and transit rights for their forces. King Ghazi ruled as a figurehead after King Faisal's death in 1933, while undermined by attempted military coups, until his death in 1939. Ghazi was followed by his underage son, Faisal II. 'Abd al-Ilah served as Regent during Faisal's minority.
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Har etableret MB i 1928 med blot en håndfuld medlemmer, men partiet vokser sig enormt i løbet af et årti.
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After the conquest of the Hejaz, the Ikhwan leadership's objective switched to expansion of the Wahhabist realm into the British protectorates of Transjordan, Iraq and Kuwait, and began raiding those territo...... foreigners in the country. As a result, they turned against Ibn Saud and, after a two-year struggle, were defeated in 1929 at the Battle of Sabilla, where their leaders were massacred.[61] In 1932 the two kingdoms of the Hejaz and Nejd were united as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
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Saudi FInance Minister Abdullah Sulaiyman signs oil concession with Socal, Jedda,1933
http://www.geoexpro.com/articles/2008/06/the-emergence-of-the-arabian-oil-industry -
Medfører Peel Commissionen, hvis report - med en partioneringsplan for Palæstina - færdiggøres og afleveres i 1937. was a nationalist uprising by Palestinian Arabs in Mandatory Palestine against the British administration of the Palestine Mandate, demanding Arab independence and the end of Jewish immigration as the League of Nations had authorized in 1922.
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...appointed in 1936 to investigate the causes of unrest in Mandatory Palestine, which was administered by Britain, following the six-month-long Arab general strike in Mandatory Palestine.
On July 7, 1937, the commission published a report that stated that the League of Nations Mandate had become unworkable and recommended partition.[2] The British cabinet endorsed the Partition plan in principle, but requested more information.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peel_Commission -
http://riyadhconnect.com/on-march-3-1938-oil-was-discovered-in-saudi-arabia/
In 1936, with the company having had no success at locating oil, the Texas Oil Co. (Texaco) purchased a 50% stake of the concession.
After four years of fruitless exploration, the first success came with the seventh drill site in Dhahran in 1938, a well referred to as Dammam No. 7. On 31 January 1944, the company name was changed from California-Arabian Standard Oil Co. to Arabian American Oil Co.ARAMCO -
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgan_field
The Burgan field is an oil field situated in the desert of southeastern Kuwait. Burgan field can also refer to the Greater Burgan—a group of three closely spaced fields, which includes Burgan field itself as well as the much smaller Magwa and Ahmadi fields. Greater Burgan is the world's largest sandstone oil field, and the second largest overall, after Ghawar. -
The policy, first drafted in March 1939, was prepared by the British government unilaterally as a result of the failure of the Arab-Zionist London Conference.[3] The paper called for the establishment of a Jewish national home in an independent Palestinian state within 10 years, rejecting the idea of the creation of a Jewish state and the idea of partitioning Palestine. It also limited Jewish immigration to 75,000 for 5 years, and ruled
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The Empire of Japan aimed to dominate Asia and the Pacific and was already at war with the Republic of China in 1937,[5] but the world war is generally said to have begun on 1 September 1939[6] with the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany and subsequent declarations of war on Germany by France and the United Kingdom.
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al-Arsuzi mistænkte Aflaq (uddannet på Sorbonne i Paris, og var som barn uddannet i det franske skolevæsen i Syrien, et fransk protektorat). for at være en imperialistisk skruebrækker, der skulle underminere hans, al-arsuzis, politiske indflydelse ved at danne et parti af stort set samme navn, hvilket ville diffundere Arsuzis partis politiske og ideologiske monopol.
After the Ba'ath Party splintered, he became the chief ideologist of the Syrian-dominated Ba'ath Party. -
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The term exists primarily as a general description for what are, in the practice of scholarship, many heterogeneous fields of research, encompassing both the social sciences and the humanities. Typical area study programs involve history, political science, sociology, cultural studies, languages, geography, literature, and related disciplines. In contrast to cultural studies, area studies often include diaspora and emigration from the area. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Area_studies
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USAs atombombardement 6. og 9. august 1945 af hhv. Hiroshima og Nagasaki samt USSRs krigserklæring mod Japan samt invadering af Manchuriet medfører Japans overgivelse.
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which created the independent dominions of India and Pakistan.The Pakistan Movement was the result of a series of social, political, and intellectual transformations in Pakistani society, government, and ways of thinking.. Efforts and struggles of the Founding Fathers resulted in the creation of the democratic and independent government.
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the war that occurred in the former Mandatory Palestine during the period between the United Nations vote on the partition plan on November 30, 1947, and the official end of the first Arab-Israeli war on July 20, 1949.
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Israels statsdannelse erklæres i World Zionist Organisation ved David Ben Gurion, leder for samme organ. (senere også PM for Israel), FN godkender Israel som medlem (og dermed stat) 1. maj 1949
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A combined invasion by Egypt, Jordan and Syria, together with expeditionary forces from Iraq, entered Palestine – Jordan having declared privately to Yishuv emissaries on 2 May it would abide by a decision not to attack the Jewish state. The invading forces took control of the Arab areas and immediately attacked Israeli forces and several Jewish settlements.
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...al-Banna was at the Jama'iyyat al-Shubban al-Muslimeen headquarters in Cairo with his brother-in-law Abdul Karim Mansur to negotiate with Minister Zaki Ali Pasha, who represented the government. However, the minister never arrived. By 5 p.m., al-Banna and his brother-in-law decided to leave. As they stood waiting for a taxi, they were shot by two men. Al-Banna eventually died from his wounds. King Farouk and his Iron Guard of Egypt were accused of being behind the assassination.
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Modernization theory is used to explain the process of modernization within societies. Modernization refers to a model of a progressive transition from a 'pre-modern' or 'traditional' to a 'modern' society. ...The theory looks at the internal factors of a country while assuming that with assistance, "traditional" countries can be brought to development in the same manner more developed countries have been. Moderniziation theory was a dominant paradigm in the social sciences in the 1950s&1960s
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Nasser kommer til magten i Egypten. General, har smidt monarkiet ud og indsat Naguib som første præsident i 1952. Smider Naguib i fængsel 1954 og får hængt lederen af Muslim Brotherhood efter et attentat på sit (Nassers eget) liv.
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Daniel Lerner (1917 - 1980)[1] was an American scholar and writer known for his studies on modernization theory. Lerner's study of Balgat Turkey played a critical role in shaping American ideas about the use of mass media and US cultural products to promote economic and social development in post-colonial nations.[citation needed] He, along with Wilbur Schramm and Everett Rogers, were influential in launching the study and practice of media development and development communication.
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landes økonomiske udvikling på en række nødvendige udviklingsfaser for økonomisk vækst, som udviklingslandene også skulle gennemgå....de havde taget det kritiske spring (på engelsk ’take off’) fra underudviklede, traditionelle landbrugssamfund til moderne industrisamfund med selvbærende økonomisk vækst. For udviklingslandene handlede det om, at de skulle gives den rette hjælp til at tage samme ’take off’ til selvbærende vækst. Således blev ulandsbistand også betragtet som et overgangsfænomen
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https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seksdageskrigen
fra 5. juni til 10. juni 1967 var en krig mellem Israel og Egypten, Jordan, Syrien og Irak. Krigen blev i hovedsagen udkæmpet mellem Israel på den ene side og Egypten, Jordan og Syrien på den anden side. Lande som Irak, Marokko, Algeriet, Tunesien, Saudi-Arabien og Sudan var i mindre grad involveret, men sendte nogen tropper og udstyr for at støtte den arabiske side. -
After the 1967 Six Day War, Israeli forces occupied the Sinai peninsula, including the entire east bank of the Suez Canal. Unwilling to allow the Israelis to use the canal, Egypt immediately imposed a blockade which closed the canal to all shipping until 5 June 1975. As a result, 15 cargo ships, known as the "Yellow Fleet", were trapped in the canal for over eight years.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suez_Canal#Arab.E2.80.93Israeli_wars_of_1967_and_1973 -
was fought between June 5 and 10, 1967 by Israel and the neighboring states of Egypt (known at the time as the UAR), Jordan, and Syria.
...tensions became dangerously heightened. In reaction to the mobilisation of Egyptian forces along the Israeli border in the Sinai Peninsula, Israel launched a series of preemptive airstrikes against Egyptian airfields. Caught by surprise, nearly the entire Egyptian air force was destroyed with few Israeli losses, giving the Israelis air superiority. -
PLO ender med at fordrives fra Jordan af Kong Husseins tropper, JAF.
Black September (Arabic: أيلول الأسود; aylūl al-aswad) refers to the conflict that was fought between the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO), under the leadership of Yasser Arafat, and the Jordanian Armed Forces, under the leadership of King Hussein primarily between 16 and 27 September 1970, with certain actions continuing until July 1971. -
Mohamed Anwar El Sadat (25. december 1918 – 6. oktober 1981) var egyptisk politiker og præsident fra 1970 til 1981. Han deltog i kuppet i 1952, som afsatte kong Farouk 1. I 1969, efter en række stillinger i regeringen, blev han valgt som vicepræsident for sin ven Gamal Abdal Nasser. Da Nasser døde det følgende, år blev han præsident.
I oktober 1981 blev han myrdet af medlemmer af Egyptens islamiske Jihadorganisation. Han efterfulgtes som præsident af Hosni Mubarak -
"Corrective Revolution" to consolidate power, the break with Egypt's long-time ally and aid-giver the USSR, the 1973 October War with Israel, the Camp David peace treaty, the "opening up" (or Infitah) of Egypt's economy, his assassination in 1981. Sadat succeeded Nasser as president after the latter's death in October 1970. Sadat's presidency was widely expected to be short-lived. Sadat surprised everyone with a series of astute political moves by which he was able to retain the presidency
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da atleter fra det det israelske hold blev taget som gidsler af den palæstinensiske terrororganisation Sorte September, en gruppe med bånd til Yasser Arafats Fatah.
Terroristerne dræbte 11 israelere og en tysk politibetjent. De tre overlevende gidseltagere blev senere frigivet af Vesttyskland efter kapring af et Lufthansafly. Kravet fra gidseltagere var at de skulle frigives. Massakren blev efterfulgt af en serie israelske snigmord som principiel hævn kendt under navnet Operation Guds Vrede -
Egyptian President Anwar Sadat wanted also to reopen the Suez Canal. Neither specifically planned to destroy Israel, although the Israeli leaders could not know
it began when the Arab coalition launched a joint surprise attack on Israeli positions in the Israeli-occupied territories on Yom Kippur... Both the United States and the Soviet Union initiated massive resupply efforts to their respective allies during the war, and this led to a near-confrontation between the two nuclear superpowers. -
Governmental power had been allotted among the different religious groups by the National Pact based partially on the results of the 1932 census. Changes in demographics and increased feelings of deprivation by certain ethnic groups, as well as Israeli–Palestinian clashes in the south of the county all contributed to the outbreak of the Lebanese Civil War.[7]
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Olie udgør cirka 70% af verdens totale energiproduktion. I 1930'erne udgjorde den kun 25%.
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Fearing loss of commercial access to the port of Beirut, in June 1976 Syria intervened in the civil war to support the Maronite dominated government,[35] and by October had 40,000 troops stationed within Lebanon.
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code-named Operation Litani by Israel) was an invasion of Lebanon up to the Litani River, carried out by the Israel Defense Forces in 1978 in response to the Coastal Road massacre. The conflict resulted in the deaths of 1,100–2,000 Lebanese and Palestinians, 20 Israelis, the internal displacement of 100,000 to 250,000 people in Lebanon, and the PLO forces retreating north of the Litani River. It led to the creation of the UNIFIL peacekeeping force and an almost complete Israeli withdrawal.
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Camp David-aftalen blev underskrevet den. 17. september 1978 og indebar en overenskomst om fred i Mellemøsten. USA's præsident Jimmy Carter ledede de hemmelige forhandlinger, som varede i tolv dage, mellem Egyptens præsident Anwar Sadat og Israels premierminister Menachem Begin. Aftalen fik navn efter stedet de foregik på, Camp David, som er bedre kendt som den amerikanske præsidents landsted.
Aftalen lagde også grundlag for den tilbagevendende amerikansk-egyptiske militærøvelse Bright Star. -
Med stærk støtte fra USA og Storbritannien fortsatte shahen af Iran moderniseringen af industrien, men forsømte samtidig at give befolkningen almindelige frihedsrettigheder. Hans autoritære styre, som stod bag systematisk tortur og andre brud på menneskerettighederne, førte til den iranske revolution --> hans regime blev fjernet fra magten i 1979. Efter mere end et års politisk kamp mellem flere forskellige politiske grupper, blev en islamisk republik etableret under ayatollah Khomeini.
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Following months of cross-border raids between the two countries, Saddam declared war on Iran in September 1980, the Iran–Iraq War (or First Persian Gulf War). Taking advantage of the post-revolution chaos in Iran, Iraq captured some territories in southwest of Iran, but Iran recaptured all of the lost territories within two years, and for the next six years Iran was on the offensive. The war, which ended in stalemate in 1988, had cost the lives of between half a million and 1.5 million people.
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believing that the Soviet Union was recruiting its regional allies in Libya and Syria to incite an uprising that would eventually force him out of power. Following a failed military coup in June 1981, Sadat ordered a major crackdown that resulted in the arrest of numerous opposition figures. Though Sadat still maintained high levels of popularity in Egypt, it has been said that he was assassinated "at the peak" of his unpopularity.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anwar_Sadat#Assassination -
...Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) operating in southern Lebanon and the IDF that had caused civilian casualties on both sides of the border. The military operation was launched after gunmen from Abu Nidal's organization attempted to assassinate Shlomo Argov, Israel's ambassador to the United Kingdom. Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin blamed Abu Nidal's enemy, the PLO, for the incident ] and treated the incident as a casus belli for the invasion.
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Murens fald, (hentydning til Berlinmuren), almindelig betegnelse for kommunismens sammenbrud i Østeuropa og Sovjetunionen med udgangspunkt i begivenhederne i Berlin 9./10. november 1989.
http://denstoredanske.dk/Geografi_og_historie/Tyskland,_%C3%98strig,_Schweiz_og_Liechtenstein/DDRs_historie/Murens_fald -
for operations leading to the buildup of troops and defense of Saudi Arabia and Operation Desert Storm (17 January 1991 – 28 February 1991) in its combat phase, was a war waged by coalition forces from 35 nations led by the United States against Iraq in response to Iraq's invasion and annexation of Kuwait.
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The September 11 attacks (also referred to as 9/11)[nb 1] were a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks by the Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda on the United States on the morning of Tuesday, September 11, 2001. The attacks killed 2,996 people, injured over 6,000 others, and caused at least $10 billion in property and infrastructure damage[2][3] and $3 trillion in total costs.
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The US government suspected Osama bin Laden as the perpetrator of the attacks, and demanded that the Taliban hand him over.[82] After refusing to comply, the October 2001 Operation Enduring Freedom was launched. The majority of Afghans supported the American invasion of their country. During the initial invasion, US and UK forces bombed al-Qaeda training camps. The United States began working with the Northern Alliance to remove the Taliban from power.
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The invasion consisted of 21 days of major combat operations, in which a combined force of troops from the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and Poland invaded Iraq and deposed the Ba'athist government of Saddam Hussein. The invasion phase consisted primarily of a conventionally fought war which included the capture of the Iraqi capital of Baghda.
President Hussein was captured during Operation Red Dawn in December of that same year and executed by a military court three years later. -
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Simmering public anger and sporadic violence intensified following Bouazizi's death, leading then-president Zine El Abidine Ben Ali to step down on 14 January 2011, after 23 years in power.
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On February 11, the President of Egypt Hosni Mubarak resigned, and transferred his powers to the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Arab_Spring#January -
As chief-of-staff the Egyptian Armed Forces, Sisi intervened on July 3, 2013, in response to earlier mass protests on June 30 and deposed Morsi. He dissolved the Muslim Brotherhood-backed constitution of 2012, and proposed, along with leading opposition and religious figures, a new political road map,
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On 3 July 2013, Egyptian army chief General Abdel Fattah el-Sisi led a coalition to remove the President of Egypt, Mohamed Morsi, from power and suspended the Egyptian constitution. The move came after the military's ultimatum for the government to "resolve its differences" with protesters during widespread national protests. The military arrested Morsi and Muslim Brotherhood leaders
![Umar (634–644) overtager rollen som kalif efter Abu Bakr. Under Umar the Islamic empire expanded at an unprecedented rate ruling the whole Sassanid Persian Empire and more than two thirds of the Eastern Roman Empire.[8]](https://s3.amazonaws.com/s3.timetoast.com/public/uploads/photo/9805042/image/5a00bb08bdc90cc3cf829b65b6d12621?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Credential=AKIAJB6ZCNNAN7BE7WDQ%2F20250916%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20250916T183140Z&X-Amz-Expires=604800&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Signature=2f4c4400963e4386dfc886ba21f50e02e82ed82cbbf9db16e0ce984b559853d1)
