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Louis XVIII, King of France
Restored to the throne after Napoleon’s defeat, Louis XVIII attempted to rule a constitutional monarchy during a period of political tension. -
congress of vienna
A diplomatic conference where European powers redrew the map of Europe and restored monarchies to maintain a balance of power after Napoleon’s fall. -
Battle of waterloo
Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated by the British and Prussian armies, marking the end of his rule and the Napoleonic Wars. -
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Spanish Liberal Biennium
A brief liberal government in Spain forced King Ferdinand VII to accept a constitution, but it was crushed by French intervention. -
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Greek War of Independence
Greece fought a successful war of independence against the Ottoman Empire, gaining support from Britain, France, and Russia. -
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Charles X, King of France
A reactionary monarch who tried to restore absolute rule, leading to widespread discontent and eventually the July Revolution. -
Independence of Greece
Greece’s sovereignty was formally acknowledged by the Great Powers, establishing it as an independent kingdom. -
Independence of Belgium
Belgium broke away from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands and became an independent, neutral state with the approval of European powers. -
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Louis Philippe, King of France
Known as the "Citizen King," he came to power after the July Revolution but lost favor due to his conservative policies and was overthrown in 1848. -
The Zollverein (German Customs Union)
A coalition of German states formed to manage tariffs and economic policies, paving the way for economic unity before political unification. -
Revolution of 1848 / Spring of Nations
A wave of liberal and nationalist revolts erupted across Europe, demanding constitutions, independence, and political reforms; most were eventually suppressed. -
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France's Second Republic
Established after the February Revolution, it introduced universal male suffrage and elected Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte as president. -
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France's Second Empire (Napoleon III)
Louis-Napoleon declared himself Emperor Napoleon III, leading a regime focused on modernization, expansion, and authoritarian rule. -
Battles of Magenta and Solferino
Key victories for France and Sardinia-Piedmont against Austria in the Second Italian War of Independence, accelerating Italian unification -
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Garibaldi conquered the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
Giuseppe Garibaldi led the Expedition of the Thousand, capturing southern Italy and handing it over to King Victor Emmanuel II. -
Victor Emmanuel II becomes King of unified Italy
The Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed with Victor Emmanuel II as its first king, symbolizing the success of the Risorgimento movement. -
Danish-Prussian War
Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark, gaining control of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, which set the stage for future conflicts.