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Restored to the throne after Napoleon’s defeat, Louis XVIII attempted to rule a constitutional monarchy during a period of political tension.
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A diplomatic conference where European powers redrew the map of Europe and restored monarchies to maintain a balance of power after Napoleon’s fall. -
Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated by the British and Prussian armies, marking the end of his rule and the Napoleonic Wars. -
A brief liberal government in Spain forced King Ferdinand VII to accept a constitution, but it was crushed by French intervention.
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Greece fought a successful war of independence against the Ottoman Empire, gaining support from Britain, France, and Russia.
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A reactionary monarch who tried to restore absolute rule, leading to widespread discontent and eventually the July Revolution.
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Greece’s sovereignty was formally acknowledged by the Great Powers, establishing it as an independent kingdom. -
Belgium broke away from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands and became an independent, neutral state with the approval of European powers. -
Known as the "Citizen King," he came to power after the July Revolution but lost favor due to his conservative policies and was overthrown in 1848.
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A coalition of German states formed to manage tariffs and economic policies, paving the way for economic unity before political unification. -
A wave of liberal and nationalist revolts erupted across Europe, demanding constitutions, independence, and political reforms; most were eventually suppressed. -
Established after the February Revolution, it introduced universal male suffrage and elected Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte as president.
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Louis-Napoleon declared himself Emperor Napoleon III, leading a regime focused on modernization, expansion, and authoritarian rule.
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Key victories for France and Sardinia-Piedmont against Austria in the Second Italian War of Independence, accelerating Italian unification -
Giuseppe Garibaldi led the Expedition of the Thousand, capturing southern Italy and handing it over to King Victor Emmanuel II.
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The Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed with Victor Emmanuel II as its first king, symbolizing the success of the Risorgimento movement. -
Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark, gaining control of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, which set the stage for future conflicts. -
Also known as the Seven Weeks' War, it ended Austrian influence in Germany and led to Prussia's dominance in the north. -
A conflict engineered by Bismarck to unify Germany; it resulted in the defeat of France and the fall of Napoleon III. -
After the victory over France, the German Empire was proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, with Wilhelm I as emperor.