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1215
The Magna Carta
The Magna Carta is the result of a dispute between a number of wealthy Barons and King John. Though it covers a number of situational-specific laws, at it's core, it states that kings and leaders are not above the law, and should be held to the same standards that any other citizen is held. It marks the point in history where ruling shifted from a Divine Mandate to a cultural agreement, in which a ruler could be held accountable for their actions according to public opinion. -
Oct 31, 1517
Martin Luther's 95 Theses
Luther had become disenchanted with the Catholic church, mainly because of it's use of plenary indulgences, or buying your way to forgiveness, as well as the fact that only the church could read the bible.He posted a list of 95 questions for the church, which resulted in a split in Christianity and the onset of Protestantism. His belief was that everyone should have access to the bible, and forgiveness comes from faith, not wealth. -
1543
Nicolaus Copernicus
Copernicus' theories revolutionized humanity's concept of our place in the universe, as well as the way in which the world itself works. Before his discovery, it was accepted that the Earth was the center of the universe. He noted that the Earth was actually revolving around the sun. While his theory, which was that the sun was the center of the universe, is wrong, it was the first step toward a time when science and observation, rather than religion, was the way to understand our world. -
The Mayflower Compact
This document was the set of rules which created a democratic society in America. It was written as a result of the Mayflower landing in what would become Massachusetts rather than their intended landing spot in Virginia. It set out basic rules for those emigrating to the new civilization, setting up a set of rules for citizens to live by and a vision for what the colony would become. It also set the precedent that this would be a Christian society, separate from but still under England's rule. -
The Peace of Westphalia
The settlement to the wars of religion which took place between May and October of 1648. It, effectively, gave regions control of themselves rather than being controlled by the Holy Roman Church, and ensured that residents were free to practice religions other than Roman Catholicism without discrimination. It can be seen as the first step toward what would become a state system, which gives power to individual states rather than overarching empires. -
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
In 1755 Rousseau published his Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, which refuted the belief that humans are sinful by nature. In Rousseau's opinion, humans are good by nature, and it is only the formation of society that creates inequality and evil. As opposed to church doctrine, in which people are inherently evil and need to be led to goodness, Rousseau believed that people are inherently good, but are led to suffering and sin by competition and inequity within society. -
Committees of Correspondence
Committees of Correspondence were emergency committees set up to form a revolutionary government with the purpose of enacting a system of government in colonial America which was free from British rule. Boston formed the first in 1772 and was quickly followed by other cities and colonies. Their purpose was to both call call for revolution among the colonists, and maintain a government in the interim period between revolting against Britain and establishing their own form of government. -
The Federalist Papers
The Federalist Papers is the collection of 85 letters written to newspapers by John Jay, Alexander Hamilton, and James Madison under the collective pen name, "Publius" in support of ratifying the US Constitution, which would require nine of the 13 colonies' votes in favor. Their intent was to quell worries about the ratification by pointing out that federal laws wouldn't undermine states' rights, which would leave the power in the hands of the people, and not create a monarchy, as some feared. -
Mary Wollstonecraft
Mary Wollstonecraft is considered to be one of the first feminists. Her book, "A Vindication of the Rights of Women," argued for equal treatment of women, and for a change in the way women were viewed, and the subsequent lack of opportunity that they had in terms of education, job, and personal life. While it was received coldly in it's time, it has become a seminal document in paving the way for equality in the modern era. -
Enclosure Acts
The Enclosure Acts allowed towns and individuals within those towns to build enclosures separating their property from the rest of the town. It gave farmers the right to separate their animals and crops from the rest of town, rather than having everything open and free-range. It was strongly backed by the middle class, but excluded many of the lower class citizens, who had no property of their own, or didn't have the necessary documentation to prove ownership despite farming for generations. -
Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions
A document, written mostly by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, which followed the outline of the Declaration of Independence. It pointed out ways in which women were lacking in rights such as the right to vote, divorce rights, the ability to take part in politics, inequality in education and the job market, and property rights in marriage. It was read by Stanton at a Women's Rights convention, -
Sojourner Truth - "Ain't I a Woman?"
In 1851, Sojourner Truth, a women's rights advocate and abolitionist, attended the Women's Rights convention in Ohio. After a preacher took the stage and claimed that women were weak, needed to be sheltered from the world, less intellectually gifted, and undeserving of the same rights as men, Truth stood up and countered his argument. She argued that women were just as strong, didn't need to be treated differently, and that religious bias didn't have a leg to stand on. -
Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address
Lincoln's speech illuminated the fact that the Civil War wasn't simply about state's rights or politics, but instead, an issue of very basic human rights which had been denied to a group of individuals. Confederates had claimed that slavery was legal because it wasn't expressly outlawed in the Constitution. The Gettysburg Address countered that notion with the Declaration of Independence, which states that "all men are created equal." -
Simone de Beauvoir
Beauvoir wrote “The Second Sex,” a critical view of the roles of women throughout history. Beauvoir pointed out the patriarchal nature of most societies throughout history, and her work was met with a lot of animosity at the time, but is now viewed as one of the earliest and most important feminist works. She was an advocate for many issues throughout her life, and became a strong supporter of the feminist movement in the seventies. -
Milton Friedman
Milton Friedman was an economist who was one of the greatest supporters of the Free Market system, providing statistical evidence that a free market encourages growth within the system. In his 1962 book, "Capitalism and Freedom," he argued for the viability of the free market model, doing away with the Draft system within the military, abolishing the system of licensing for doctors, and economic steps which would include the lower and middle classes, such as teacher vouchers and tax reform. -
Port Huron Statement
The Port Huron Statement encapsulated a frustration, and provided a vision of action for, students who were frustrated with the tendency of universities to not pay attention to or actively try to silence voices of students who were concerned with the current political climate, specifically the Civil Rights Movement and the Vietnam War. The statement called for colleges and universities to embrace current culture, and for students to form a "New Left" movement, empowering themselves. -
Derrick Bell
Bell was the first black tenured Harvard professor, as well as later becoming a professor at NYU. He is considered the founder of "Critical Race Theory," which holds that US law and society is inherently racist, and as they are living in a society and justice system which has excluded their equality and justice, it is up to minorities which laws they do or do not wish to follow. According to Critical Race Theory, programs like Affirmative Action are necessary to reduce societal bigotry. -
Kimberlé Williams Crenshaw
Crenshaw is a lawyer and civil rights activist who created the term, "intersectionality," to show how Black females can experience multiple forms of prejudice based on race, sex, cultural background, etc. all at the same time. It's basis is the idea of an intersection. If an accident takes place, it's often not a clear-cut case of one vehicle hitting another. Oftentimes it's the result of traffic going in many different directions. Similarly, women can experience racism, sexism, etc.all at once. -
Judith Butler
Butler's viewpoints of gender and even sex as a social construct, imposed upon individuals by society and tradition rather than biology, have been influential in some realms of feminism, queer literature and theory, and gender studies. Her feeling is that gender and, to some degree, sex, are social constructs which are pushed upon us through societal messages and language. These concepts are exposed as a falsity by those who defy the culture which they are raised in. -
Robert Putnam: Civil Society
Putnam has written several important works, including, "Making Democracy Work" (1993) and, "Bowling Alone" (2000), which compare and contrast the US's levels of civic involvement with that of Italy. He found a drastic decline in the levels of civic involvement in the democratic process. Along with this, he found a huge decline in social activities. According to his research, current generations are less socially and civically connected than previous generations.