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Johann Friedrich Herbart, considered the “Father of Pedagogy” published “Allgemeine Pädagogik" which translates to "General Pedagogy” outlining a scientific approach to pedagogy. Herbart's philosophical perspective was grounded in realism, in which he concluded that all mental phenomena derive from elementary approaches. "The sole and entire task of education is encompassed by the concept, 'morality'." -
Alexander Kapp, a German educator, first coined the term “andragogy” in his book "Platon's Erziehungslehre (Plato's Educational Ideas)". Kapp's interpretation of this concept is his way of saying there should be a separation between the education of adults compared to children. -
Maria Montessori opened her first childcare center in Rome, testing the constructivism pedagogical approach -
Lev Vygotsky developed the social constructivism pedagogical approach, though his work didn’t gain attention until the 1970s. This may have to do with the Soviet Union's censorship laws at the time that prevented him from being widely published until after his death. Vygotsky focused on the importance of cultural influences and social interactions. -
Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy further developed andragogy as a theory of adult education in an effort to provide courses and seminars for blue-collar workers. -
Malcolm Knowles published his first article on andragogy titled “Andraogy, Not Pedagogy” -
Paulo Freire published what is deemed to be his most important work, “Pedagogy of the Oppressed”. This work introduced the liberationism pedagogical approach. -
Malcolm Knowles, considered the “Father of Andragogy” made four assumptions about the characteristics of adult learners. He later added a fifth assumption in 1984. Knowles' Assumptions of Adult Learners
1. Self-Concept
2. Adult Learner Experience
3. Readiness to Learn
4. Orientation to Learning
5. Motivation to Learn Read more about them here! -
Jack Mezirow developed a critical theory of adult learning and education, expanding on andragogy. Learn more about Mezirow's Transformative Learning Theory here! -
D. Randy Garrison published his self-directed learning model, supporting Knowles’ work on andragogy -
Scholars continue to explore the relationship between self-directed learning and adult education practices. Current studies are more focused on refining existing theories, applying them to new contexts, and critically examining their relevance in various educational settings.