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congress of viena
Reorganized Europe after Napoleon's defeat; restored monarchies and conservative order. -
Louis XVIII, King of France
Restored to the French throne after Napoleon’s fall. -
waterloo
Napoleon Bonaparte is defeated at the Battle of Waterloo, ending the Napoleonic Wars. -
Spanish Liberal Biennium
Period of constitutional rule in Spain after Riego's military uprising. -
Greek War of Independence
Revolt against the Ottoman Empire; supported by major European powers. -
Charles X, King of France
Conservative monarch, overthrown during the July Revolution. -
Belgian Independence
Revolution against Dutch rule; Belgium became an independent kingdom. -
Louis Philippe, King of France
"Citizen King" of France; ousted by the 1848 Revolution. -
Zollverein (German Customs Union)
Economic union of German states, key step toward unification. -
Revolutions of 1848 / Springtime of Nations
Series of liberal and nationalist uprisings across Europe. -
Second French Republic
Established after the fall of Louis Philippe’s monarchy. -
Second French Empire
Authoritarian regime under Napoleon III; modernized France. -
Battles of Magenta and Solferino
Franco-Piedmontese victory over Austria; key for Italian unification. -
Garibaldi's Conquest of the Two Sicilies
Southern Italy was unified under Garibaldi’s campaign. -
Victor Emmanuel II, King of Italy
Proclaimed first king of unified Italy. -
Danish-Prussian War (War of the Duchies)
Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark; gained control of Schleswig and Holstein. -
Austro-Prussian War
Prussia defeated Austria; excluded Austria from German affairs. -
Franco-Prussian War
Prussia defeated France; collapse of the Second French Empire. -
Wilhelm I proclaimed Kaiser of the Second Reich
German Empire was founded in Versailles, uniting Germany under Prussia.