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The Renaissance was a European cultural movement from around 1400 to 1600, starting in Italy. It emphasized humanism, art, science, and classical learning, leading to masterpieces in painting, sculpture, architecture, and literature, and marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modern Europe.
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In 1420, Filippo Brunelleschi began the Florence Cathedral dome, using a double-shell design and herringbone bricks. He invented hoists and pulleys so it could support itself, combining art, engineering, and innovation.
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In 1498, Michelangelo sculpted the Pietà, showing the Virgin Mary holding the dead Jesus. Made from marble, it is famous for its realism, detail, and emotion, demonstrating Michelangelo’s extraordinary skill and Renaissance artistry.
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Painted in 1509, Raphael created The School of Athens, a fresco in the Vatican. It shows ancient philosophers and scientists, like Plato and Aristotle, in a grand architectural setting, representing knowledge, reason, and Renaissance ideals.
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Carlos I of Spain (also Holy Roman Emperor Charles V) ruled from 1516 to 1556. His reign united Spain and the Habsburg Empire, facing religious conflicts, wars in Europe, and colonial expansion. He strengthened Spanish power but faced challenges managing a vast and diverse empire.
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Revolt of the Comuneros in Castilla (1520–1521):
The Revolt of the Comuneros occurred in Castile from 1520 to 1521. Citizens and nobles rose against King Carlos I, protesting high taxes, foreign influence, and centralization of power. The revolt was eventually crushed, but it highlighted tensions between the monarchy and local communities. -
In 1555, the Peace of Augsburg ended religious conflicts in the Holy Roman Empire. It allowed rulers to choose Catholicism or Lutheranism for their territories, establishing the principle of “cuius regio, eius religio” (“whose realm, his religion”).
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Felipe II of Spain ruled from 1556 to 1598, overseeing a vast empire including Spain, the Americas, and the Netherlands. His reign focused on Catholicism, centralizing power, and military campaigns, such as the defeat of the Spanish Armada, but faced economic challenges and revolts.
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The Alpujarras Rebellion occurred in southern Spain from 1568 to 1571. The Moriscos (Muslims forced to convert to Christianity) rose against King Felipe II due to religious persecution and heavy taxes. The revolt was brutally suppressed, leading to mass deaths and expulsions.
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The Eighty Years’ War lasted from 1568 to 1648, fought between the Dutch provinces and Spain. The Dutch sought independence and religious freedom, leading to the creation of the Dutch Republic. The war involved prolonged battles, sieges, and political struggles across the Low Countries.
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The Union of Arras (signed 6 January 1579) was an alliance of Catholic provinces in the southern Netherlands that pledged loyalty to Philip II of Spain, affirmed Catholicism as the only permitted religion, and sought to restore earlier privileges.
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Signed on 23 January 1579, the Union of Utrecht was an alliance of northern Dutch provinces. They opposed Spanish rule and promoted religious tolerance, laying the foundation for the Dutch Republic.
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In 1588, England defeated the Spanish Armada, a massive fleet sent by Spain to invade. Strong English navy tactics and storms prevented the invasion, marking a turning point in European naval power.
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Baroque art developed in Europe around 1600–1750. It is characterized by drama, movement, contrast, and grandeur, often used in churches and palaces to impress viewers. Artists like Caravaggio, Bernini, and Velázquez created works full of emotion, detail, and theatrical effect.
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In 1622, Bernini sculpted Apollo and Daphne, showing the moment Daphne turns into a laurel tree to escape Apollo. Carved from marble, it is famous for its dynamic movement, emotion, and Baroque detail.
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In 1656, Bernini designed Saint Peter’s Square in Vatican City. Its oval shape and colonnades embrace visitors, symbolizing the welcoming arms of the Church, and it remains a masterpiece of Baroque architecture and urban planning.
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Painted in 1657, Velázquez created The Spinners, showing women working in a workshop, blending everyday life with classical mythology. It is celebrated for its realism, composition, and use of light.
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Neoclassical art emerged in Europe around 1750–1830, inspired by ancient Greece and Rome. It emphasizes clarity, simplicity, symmetry, and moral themes. Artists like Jacques-Louis David created works showing patriotism, virtue, and heroism, reacting against the drama of Baroque and Rococo styles.
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Painted in 1784, David depicted three brothers swearing loyalty to Rome, emphasizing duty, patriotism, and sacrifice. The painting is a key example of Neoclassical art, with clear lines, symmetry, and moral themes.
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Painted in 1800, Goya portrayed King Carlos IV and his family, showing their power and status, but also hinting at human flaws. The painting is known for its realism, psychological depth, and detailed depiction.