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The papacy was moved from Rome to Avignon, France. Weakened papal authority and prestige, creating distrust in the Church.
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Multiple men claimed to be pope at once. This deepened divisions in the Church and fueled calls for reform.
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Czech reformer who criticized Church corruption was burned at the stake. His execution made him a martyr for later reformers.
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Revolutionized communication by making books (including the Bible) more widely available, spreading reformist ideas quickly.
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Broke from Rome, establishing the Anglican Church largely for political and personal reasons.
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Tetzel’s sale of indulgences outraged Martin Luther and triggered his protest.
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Luther nailed his criticisms of indulgences and Church corruption to the Wittenberg church door, sparking the Protestant Reformation.
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Luther was ordered to recant but refused, declaring his conscience bound to God’s word. He was declared an outlaw but gained support from German princes.
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Inspired partly by Reformation ideas, peasants rebelled against their lords. Luther opposed the revolt, showing his reliance on political leaders for reform.
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Meeting between Luther and Zwingli to unite reform movements. They agreed on many doctrines but divided over the Lord’s Supper, keeping Protestantism split.
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Declared Henry VIII head of the Church of England, separating from Rome.
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The Catholic Church’s response to the Reformation (Counter-Reformation). Reaffirmed Catholic doctrine and reformed some practices.
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Introduced under Edward VI, standardized Protestant worship in England.
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Tried to restore Catholicism in England. Her persecution of Protestants earned her the nickname "Bloody Mary."
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Led the Dutch Revolt against Spain, playing a key role in Dutch independence and Protestant resistance.
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Established that German princes could choose Lutheranism or Catholicism (“cuius regio, eius religio”), but no other faiths were recognized.
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Stabilized Protestantism in England with a moderate Anglican settlement.
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England (under Elizabeth I) defeated Spain’s Armada, securing Protestant England against Catholic reconquest.
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Series of conflicts between Catholics and Huguenots (French Protestants).
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Calvin’s major theological work, shaping Reformed (Calvinist) Protestant thought.
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Founded by Ignatius Loyola, the Jesuits became key leaders in the Catholic Counter-Reformation, spreading Catholicism worldwide.
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Rebellion of the Netherlands against Spanish (Catholic) rule, tied to religious freedom and political independence.
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Alliance of northern Dutch provinces, laying the foundation for the Dutch Republic and religious toleration.
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Defined the doctrines of the Church of England, establishing a Protestant yet moderate theological foundation.
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Mass killing of French Huguenots in Paris, deepening Catholic-Protestant hostility.
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Issued by Henry IV, granted Huguenots religious toleration and civil rights.
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A devastating conflict in the Holy Roman Empire, beginning as a religious war between Protestants and Catholics but expanding into a broader European war.
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Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes, ending religious toleration in France and leading to persecution of Protestants (Huguenots).