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Grammar-Translation Method (late 18th century)
(1) Emphasized on accuracy, explicit grammar rules, vocabulary lists, translations from L1 to L2, (2) Content focused on reading and writing rather than oral language, (3) Focused on analyzing language rather than ability to use it, (4) Teacher-fronted pedagogy based on behaviorism. -
Direct Method (1900s)
(1) Emphasized oral language with listening and speaking as primary skills, (2) Translation and explicit grammar downplayed, (3) Focused on L2 immersion with little or no L1 integration. -
Reading Method (1900s)
(1) Emphasized language learning by reading through vocabulary management, (2) Low-frequency literary words substituted with more common vocabulary to increase readability of texts, (3) Championed by Michael West in the UK. -
Audiolingualism (1940s)
(1) Emphasized language learning as a result of habit formation or behaviorism, (2) Focused on intensive oral drills, sentence patterns and memorization. -
Universal Grammar (1950s)
(1) Spearheaded by Noam Chomsky, (2) Children born with innate language abilities for their L1, (3) Behaviorist thinking de-emphasized. -
Systemic-Functional Grammar (mid 1970s)
(1) Championed by Michael Halliday, (2) Language not something exclusively internal to a learner, but rather a means of functioning in society, (3) Highlighted communicative and dynamic nature -
Monitor Theory (1980s)
(1) Developed by Stephen Krashen, (2) L2 acquisition based on comprehensible input unconsciously attained and not through explicit exercises, (3) Focused on meaning rather than form, (4) Affective filter or learner's emotional state affects language acquisition, (5) Language exposure included elements beyond the current level of learners' ability (i+1). -
Communicative Approach (1980s)
(1) Emphasized learner's message and fluency rather than grammatical accuracy, (2) Problem-solving activities and tasks encouraged to transact information (3) Total immersion in L2 encouraged. -
Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL), 1990s
(1) Started post-WWII, but became more prominent in 1990s, (2) Individualized learning, (3) Interactive audio and video input, (4) Can serve an supplement to classroom instruction. -
Sociocultural Theory (late 1990s)
Emphasized social interaction with others to develop language and cognition
