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Italy is divided into small states under foreign control. The north is dominated by Austria. -
The German Confederation is created, a loose association of 39 German States under Austrian influence. -
Giuseppe Mazzini founds Young Italy, a nationalist movement aimed at unifying Italy. -
Prussia leads the creation of a customs union, fostering economic unity among German states, excluding Austria. -
These wars, especially the First Opium War (1839-1842), marked the beginning of significant Western influence in China, leading to the Treaty of Nanking. -
This treaty ended the First Opium War and was the first of the “Unequal Treaties.” It forced China to cede Hong Kong to the British and open several ports to British trade. -
Revoltions erupt in several Italian states seeking independence and unity. They fail but strengthen the unification sentiment. -
Liberal revolutions in German states push for unification and a constitution, but they fail due to conservation forces. -
Although not directly caused by the West, the instability during the rebellion allowed for increased foreign interference and influence, as Western powers supported the Qing dynasty to suppress the rebellion. -
Cavour promotes internal reforms and seeks international alliances to advance unification. -
Also known as the Arrow War, this conflict resulted in further Western concessions, including the opening of more Chinese ports to European powers. -
It laid the groundwork for growing nationalistic movements and resistance against British rule. -
Piedmont-Sardinia, with French support, defeats Austria, liberating Lombardy. -
Giuseppe Garibaldi leads military campaign in southern Italy, conquering Sicily and Naples. -
Victor Emmanuel II is proclaimed King of Italy. Most Italian states are unified, except for Rome and Venice. -
This period saw China attempting reforms and modernization based on Western technology and military models, largely in response to foreign pressure. -
Bismarck rises to power and begins implementing his Realpolitik strategy to unify Germany under Prussian leadership. -
Prussia and Austria defeat Denmark, gaining control of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, increasing Prussian influence. -
Italy allies with Prussia against Austria. Venice is annexed to the Kingdom of Italy. -
Prussia defeats Austria and excludes it from German Affairs, leading to the dissolution of the German Confederation and the creation of the North German Confederation. -
A federal alliance of northern German states is formed under Prussian dominance, excluding southern German states and Austria. -
After the withdrawal of French troops, Italy takes Rome, which becomes the capital of the Kingdom of Italy. -
Bismarck provokes war with France rallying southern German states to join the North German Confederation against a common enemy. -
European exploration and missionary activities increase in Africa, particularly in the Congo region. -
Unification is consolidated with Rome as the political center of power. -
The Franco-Prussian War ends with this treaty, marking France’s defeat. Alsace and Lorraine are annexed to Germany, solidifying German unification. -
Following the defeat of France, the German Empire is proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, with Wilhelm I as Emperor. -
King Leopold II of Belgium establishes the International African Association, marking Belgium’s involvement in the Congo. -
France’s victory in this conflict led to increased European influence in China, particularly in southern regions like Vietnam, which became a French colony. -
Berlin Conference: European powers meet to establish rules for the partition of Africa and avoid conflicts among themselves. -
Leopold II claims the Congo Free State, establishing his control over the Congo Basin as a personal colony. -
The INC emerged as a political party advocating for greater Indian autonomy. -
Britain and Germany sign an agreement, dividing spheres of influence in East Africa. -
Japan’s victory over China shocked the Qing government and opened the door for further Western incursions into Chinese territory and influence. -
Italy invades Ethiopia, beginning the First Italo-Ethiopian War. -
Ethiopia defeats Italy, maintaining its independence, one of the few African nations to do so. -
Proposed by the United States, this policy aimed to ensure equal trade opportunities for all foreign powers in China, preventing any one nation from dominating. -
A nationalist uprising against foreign influence, which was crushed by a coalition of Western powers and Japan, leading to further imposition of Western controls. -
British Empire fights against Boer republics in South Africa, leading to British dominance in the region. -
Germany commits atrocities during its colonization of present-day Namibia. -
This group was created to represent the interests of Muslims in India. -
This revolution overthrew the Qing dynasty, marking the end of imperial China and the beginning of the Republic of China, influenced in part by Western ideas of nationalism and governance. -
Final borders between French and British territories in West Africa are settled. -
The INC and the Muslim League agreed on a joint platform to demand more political reforms from the British. -
These were a series of meetings held in London to discuss constitutional reforms in India, including the role of minorities. -
The Muslim League, led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, called for a separate Muslim state, which eventually became Pakistan. -
Launched by the INC under Mahatma Gandhi, it was a mass protest demanding an end to British rule. -
Marked by widespread communal violence between Hindus and Muslims, it highlighted the growing divide and demand for partition. -
Lord Mountbatten, the last Viceroy of India, announced the plan to partition India into two nations – India and Pakistan. -
India gained independence, and the country was divided into two dominions, India and Pakistan, leading to massive migration and violence.