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The Estates General began on May 5, 1789, summoned by King Louis XVI to address France’s financial crisis. It included three estates: clergy, nobility, and commoners. Discontent in the Third Estate led to the formation of the National Assembly, sparking the French Revolution. -
The Storming of the Bastille on July 13, 1789, symbolized the start of the French Revolution and the fall of monarchy. Revolutionaries seized the fortress, demanding weapons, sparking the fight for freedom. Today, Bastille Day honors this historic event. -
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, adopted on August 26, 1789, by the French National Assembly, defined individual rights and equality. Inspired by Enlightenment ideas, it proclaimed liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression as fundamental rights, laying the foundation for modern democracy. -
The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Citizen, written by Olympe de Gouges in 1791, demanded equal rights for women in politics and society. Inspired by the French Revolution, it challenged gender inequality, calling for women's suffrage, property rights, and legal equality. -
The Reign of Terror (1793-1794) was a period during the French Revolution marked by mass executions of perceived enemies, led by Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety. It ended with Robespierre's execution in July 1794. -
King Louis XVI was executed by guillotine on January 21, 1793, in Paris, after being convicted of treason by the National Convention*. His death marked the end of monarchy and the rise of the French Republic during the Revolution. -
The Coup d'État of 9 Thermidor (July 27, 1794) marked the fall of Maximilien Robespierre and the end of the Reign of Terror. Fearing his increasing power, rival revolutionaries arrested and executed him, leading to a more moderate phase of the French Revolution. -
The Directory (1795-1799) was a five-member government in post-Revolutionary France. It faced political instability and corruption, ending with Napoleon Bonaparte's coup in 1799. -
The Coup d'État of 18 Brumaire (November 9, 1799) led by Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew the Directory, ending the French Revolution. It established the Consulate, with Napoleon as First Consul, paving the way for his rule as Emperor of France. -
The Consulate (1799–1804) was the government of France after Napoleon Bonaparte's coup d'état in 1799. It replaced the Directory and established a three-man executive, with Napoleon as First Consul. Napoleon consolidated power, leading to reforms and the eventual proclamation of the French Empire in 1804. -
The French Empire (1804–1814) was when Napoleon Bonaparte declared himself emperor and expanded French territory through military conquests. It ended with his first abdication in 1814, though he briefly returned during the Hundred Days in 1815 before being defeated again. -
The Battle of Austerlitz on December 2, 1805, was a decisive victory for Napoleon against Russia and Austria. Napoleon's 68,000 troops defeated an Allied force of 85,000, solidifying his dominance in Europe and leading to the Treaty of Pressburg, which weakened Austria. -
Reorganized Europe after Napoleon's defeat.
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After his first abdication in 1814, Napoleon Bonaparte was exiled to the island of Elba, off the coast of Italy. He was given sovereignty over the island but spent only about 9 months there. In February 1815, he escaped and returned to France, starting the Hundred Days before being defeated at the Battle of Waterloo. -
Napoleon Bonaparte's final defeat. -
After his final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, Napoleon Bonaparte was exiled to Saint Helena, a remote island in the South Atlantic. He lived there under British guard until his death in 1821, likely from stomach cancer. His exile to Saint Helena marked the end of his rule and the Napoleonic era. -
The Battle of Waterloo on June 18, 1815, ended Napoleon Bonaparte’s rule. His French army was defeated by British forces led by the Duke of Wellington and Prussians under Blücher. Napoleon was exiled, ending the Napoleonic Wars and restoring the French monarchy. -
A liberal period in Spain following a military uprising.
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Napoleon Bonaparte died on May 5, 1821, on the island of Saint Helena, where he had been exiled after his defeat at Waterloo in 1815. He died at the age of 51, likely from stomach cancer, though some theories suggest possible poisoning. His death marked the end of his extraordinary life and career, which had reshaped Europe. -
Conservative successor of Louis XVIII.
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Broke away from the Netherlands. -
Independence of Greece formally recognized -
"Citizen King" after July Revolution.
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Customs union of German states led by Prussia. -
Widespread revolutionary wave in Europe.
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Established after the 1848 revolution.
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Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte becomes emperor.
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Franco-Sardinian victories in the Second Italian War of Independence.
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Key event in Italian unification.
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First king of a unified Italy.
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Prussia and Austria defeat Denmark over Schleswig and Holstein.
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Prussia defeats Austria and asserts dominance in Germany.
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Led to the collapse of the Second Empire in France.
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German Empire proclaimed in Versailles.