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Congress of Vienna
A meeting of European powers after Napoleon's defeat, aimed at restoring old boundaries and maintaining a balance of power in Europe. -
Battle of Waterloo
Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated by the Seventh Coalition (mainly Britain and Prussia), marking the end of the Napoleonic Wars. -
Spanish Liberal Biennium
A brief period of liberal rule in Spain, with the return of the 1812 Constitution, ended by French intervention. -
Greek War of Independence
Greece fought against Ottoman rule, gaining support from European powers. -
Charles X, King of France
Ultra-royalist king whose reactionary policies led to the July Revolution of 1830. -
Independence of Greece officially recognized
Greece became an independent kingdom under the protection of Britain, France, and Russia. -
Louis Philippe, King of France
"The Citizen King," came to power after the July Revolution; his rule ended with the 1848 revolution. -
Independence of Belgium
Belgium broke away from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands and became an independent, neutral state -
Formation of the Zollverein
A customs union among German states that promoted economic unity and laid the foundation for political unification. -
Revolution of 1848 (Spring of Nations)
A wave of revolutions across Europe demanding liberal reforms, national unification, and democratic rights. -
Louis XVIII, King of France
Restored Bourbon monarch after Napoleon; ruled under a constitutional monarchy. -
France's Second Empire (Napoleon III)
Louis-Napoleon declared himself Emperor Napoleon III; his rule was marked by modernization and eventually war with Prussia. -
France's Second Republic
Established after the 1848 revolution, it ended the July Monarchy and gave rise to President Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte. -
Battles of Magenta and Solferino
Key victories for France and Sardinia-Piedmont against Austria during the Second Italian War of Independence. -
Garibaldi conquered the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
Giuseppe Garibaldi’s military campaign helped unify southern Italy under the Kingdom of Sardinia. -
Victor Emmanuel II became King of Italy
First king of a unified Italy, symbolizing the success of the Italian unification movement. -
1864 – Danish-Prussian War
Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark, gaining control of Schleswig and Holstein. -
Austro-Prussian War
Prussia defeated Austria, excluded it from German affairs, and led to the creation of the North German Confederation. -
Franco-Prussian War
Prussian victory led to the collapse of the French Empire and paved the way for German unification. -
Wilhelm I proclaimed Kaiser of the Second German Reich
German unification was completed; Wilhelm I became emperor of a unified Germany in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles.