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Colonies established differing criteria for citizenship, often based on property ownership and religious affiliation. Native Americans, Africans, and non-English Europeans were generally excluded from citizenship.
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Many states granted citizenship to free white males. The Naturalization Act of 1790 allowed only "free white persons" to become naturalized citizens. Others, including enslaved Africans and Native Americans, were excluded.
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The 14th Amendment (1868) granted birthright citizenship to anyone "subject to the jurisdiction" of the United States, overturning the Dred Scott decision. This was a significant expansion, though Native Americans on reservations were still excluded.
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Chinese Exclusion Act (1882) explicitly barred Chinese immigrants from citizenship, highlighting racial discrimination.
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19th Amendment granted women the right to vote, extending citizenship rights to women.
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Some states began to gradually extend citizenship rights to free African Americans, though often with limitations. Native Americans continued to be denied citizenship.
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Indian Citizenship Act granted citizenship to all Native Americans born in the U.S.
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Internment of Japanese Americans during WWII demonstrated the fragility of citizenship rights for marginalized groups.
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Civil rights movement led to desegregation and expanded voting rights for African Americans.
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Immigration and Nationality Act abolished racial restrictions on immigration, opening the doors for more diverse immigrants.
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Ongoing discussions about immigration and DACA highlight contemporary challenges in defining citizenship.