-
It was invented in the 1440's, but was publicly accessible in the 1450's, and was made by Johannes Gutenberg. -
In May of 1453, the Ottomans took over Constantinople, and from their taxes, led the Spanish to discover the great contenant of America (name of both north and south america into one since there is Panama)
-
The Alhambra Decree of 1492, issued by Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella, mandated the expulsion of all Jews from the Kingdom of Spain unless they converted to Catholicism by the end of July 1492. The Spanish Reconquista was completed in 1492 with the capture of Granada by the Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile
-
Michelangelo completed the famous ceiling frescoes of the Sistine Chapel in 1512. Pope Julius II commissioned Michelangelo for this work in 1508, and the entire ceiling was revealed to the public on October 31, 1512, with a papal mass the following day, All Saints' Day.
-
Martin Luther launched the Protestant Reformation on October 31, 1517, by publishing his 95 Theses. Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses in Wittenberg, Germany, on October 31, 1517, challenging the practice of selling indulgences by the Catholic Church and sparking the Protestant Reformation.
-
Martin Luther attended the Imperial Diet of Worms on April 17, 1521, after being summoned by Emperor Charles V to retract his writings against the Catholic Church. He refused, famously declaring, "I cannot and will not recant anything, for it is dangerous and a threat to salvation to act against one's conscience"
-
The Act of Supremacy, passed by the English Parliament on November 3, 1534, declared King Henry VIII and his successors as the Supreme Head of the Church of England, effectively severing ties with the Roman Catholic Church and the Pope.
-
Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus published On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (De revolutionibus orbium coelestium) in 1543, introducing his heliocentric model that challenged the Ptolemaic geocentric model by proposing that the Earth and other planets orbit the Sun
-
The Council of Trent was the Catholic Church's pivotal response to the Protestant Reformation, clarifying and codifying Catholic doctrine and implementing reforms to address corruption and abuses
-
The Peace of Augsburg was a treaty in 1555 that established the principle of cuius regio, eius religio ("whose realm, his religion"), allowing Holy Roman Empire princes to choose either Catholicism or Lutheranism for their territories
-
The St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre was a series of targeted assassinations and mob violence against Huguenots in Paris on August 24, 1572, and in other parts of France in the following months
-
The War of the Three Henry's was the eighth and final conflict in the French Wars of Religion, a struggle for the French throne between King Henry III, Henry I of Guise, and Henry of Navarre
-
The Spanish Armada was defeated on August 8, 1588, during the Battle of Gravelines following a series of skirmishes after the Armada entered the English Channel in late July
-
-
The Edict of Nantes was proclaimed in 1598 by King Henry IV of France to grant religious and civil rights to Protestants in a predominantly Catholic nation
-
Prague is the capital of the Czech Republic. Bohemian Phase Sparked by the Defenstration of Prague was a local revolt by Protestants. Danish Phase King Christian IV of Denmark intervened to support Protestants but was defeated by Imperial forces. Swedish Phase Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden led a Protestant counter-offensive funded by France achieving significant victories before his death in the Battle. French Phase Catholic France directly intervened against the Catholic turning the war political
-
the English civil war was Parliament's fight against King Charles I's perceived absolutism, ending with Royalist defeat after Cromwell's New Model Army victory at Naseby, leading to Charles's capture, then Royalists and Scottish allies were quickly crushed by Cromwell, culminating in Charles I's execution in 1649 and the establishment of the English Commonwealth
-
Louis XIV's reign at Versailles took personal control in 1661, establishing absolute monarchy by centralizing power, controlling the nobility through elaborate court etiquette, and transforming the palace into a symbol of his divine right and France's power, effectively ending feudal challenges and making the court the center of French political life. He ruled without a chief minister, managing all state affairs
-
It was a relatively bloodless overthrow of Catholic King James II, replaced by his Protestant daughter Mary II and her husband William of Orange, establishing a constitutional monarchy where Parliament's power exceeded the monarch's, laying foundations for modern democracy and guaranteed rights through the English Bill of Rights. James II was replaced by William III and Mary II
-
The English Bill of Rights was enacted on December 16, 1689, when William and Mary gave it Royal Assent, making it law after Parliament passed it following the Glorious Revolution and the earlier Declaration of Rights presented to them in February 1689. established parliamentary supremacy, ensuring regular parliaments, free elections, and protecting individual rights. provided the philosophical justification for these changes, arguing for natural rights and government by consent
-
the Treaty of Utrecht formally ended the War of the Spanish Succession, recognizing Philip V as King of Spain but ensuring the French and Spanish crowns never united, thereby preserving the European balance of power
-
Maria Theresa's reign as the only female ruler of the Habsburg domains was defined by challenges to her succession, leading to the War of the Austrian Succession, but she emerged as a powerful reformer, modernizing Austria through significant administrative, economic, and military reforms, strengthening the state, and securing her dynasty's survival against rivals like Prussia
-
Diderot’s Encyclopedia, titled Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, was a monumental Enlightenment project edited by Denis Diderot and Jean Le Rond d'Alembert, it aiming to compile all human knowledge, challenge traditional authority, and promote reason, making it a key work in spreading ideas that influenced the French Revolution
-
fought mainly between Great Britain and France, expanding from colonial rivalries over land in the Ohio Valley to a wider European struggle involving Prussia, Austria, Russia, and others, establishing Britain as the dominant world power by securing vast territories in North America and India but leading to debt and colonial resentment that fueled the American Revolution. It ended in the Treaty of Paris
-
It was a transformative era of mechanization, shifting from agrarian, hand-based work to factory systems using steam power and new machines, especially in textiles, leading to rapid urbanization, profound social changes, and the rise of industrial cities like Manchester, but also bringing harsh working conditions, pollution, and wealth disparities, fundamentally reshaping British society and economy
-
Catherine the Great's reign was a transformative era for Russia, marked by significant territorial expansion, acquiring Black Sea ports and Polish lands, cultural integration with Europe, and efforts to modernize through Enlightenment ideals, though it also reinforced serfdom, culminating in events like Pugachev's Rebellion
-
It was Russia's largest popular uprising before the 20th century, led by Cossack Yemelyan Pugachev, who falsely claimed to be the murdered Tsar Peter III, promising freedom from serfdom and oppression. The revolt united Cossacks, serfs, and ethnic minorities against Catherine the Great, fueled by grievances over serfdom, taxation, and imperial policies
-
The 13 colonies revolted away and declared independence from the British empire in 1776, the fourth of July
-
The French Revolution began in 1789 due to severe financial crisis, social inequality, and Enlightenment ideals, leading to the convocation of the Estates-General; the Third Estate broke away to form the National Assembly, culminating in the iconic Storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789. It was triggered under Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette. There was a Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.Storming of the Bastille happened, and the National Assembly was created.
-
The Haitian Revolution was a successful slave revolt in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, leading to the only nation established by formerly enslaved people. Haiti, gaining independence in 1804 by defeating French, Spanish, and British forces, fundamentally challenging slavery and colonialism and becoming the first free Black republic
-
The Reign of Terror was a violent phase of the French Revolution led by Maximilien Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety, established to crush internal and external enemies through mass arrests and executions of perceived counter-revolutionaries, nobles, clergy, and even fellow revolutionaries, under the justification that terror was necessary to protect the Republic. Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were Executed
-
Napoleon Bonaparte seized power in France through the Coup of 18 Brumaire on November 9, 1799, overthrowing the weak Directory government and establishing the French Consulate, making himself First Consul and the de facto ruler of France. This ends the French Republic and begins the Consulate
-
On December 2, 1804, Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of the French in a grand ceremony at Notre-Dame Cathedral in Paris, a deliberate, symbolic act where he took the crown from Pope Pius VII and placed it on his own head, asserting his power came from himself and the people, not the Church, transforming France from a republic to an empire and establishing a new imperial dynasty
-
The Holy Roman Empire ended on August 6, 1806, when Emperor Francis II abdicated his title under pressure from Napoleon's victories and the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine, which effectively dissolved the thousand-year-old political entity and marked the rise of modern European nation-states
-
The Battle of Waterloo was fought near Waterloo Belgium, was the decisive final defeat of Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte by a coalition army led by the Duke of Wellington (British, Dutch, German) and Marshal Blücher (Prussian). The crushing loss for France marked the end of the Napoleonic Wars, Napoleon's reign, and French dominance in Europe, solidifying Wellington's legendary status as a military commander