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promoted empire/ indirectly and directly through adventure novels set in colonial territory
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first celeb 1902 but became official in 1916
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ldr was muhammad ali jinnah, wanted a homeland for muslims- pakistan
divide and rule- brits used this, favoured muslims, claim that necessary brit presence if not all out blood war would ensue -
ganhi exprssd in 1909 and kept this through all hisn life
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emp took 35% of brit exports and gave 26.9 of its imports
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that was made to make sure that all films that were being portrayed about the empire showdd both it and its subject in a positive light.
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lord hardingae- viceroy at time, declare war on behalf of ind,
no conscription for india
mothers were given medals if they had a certain number of sons in the army
india contributed 4X more men than all other doms/ colonies combined -
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as war strts turn from veiled protectorate to protectorate
1.2 mill egypts recruited to defend egyp and mid east
100,000 egyps fought in eu ww1 and half died.
in EU mostly worked as labourers -
was at 35,000 mill- 13x the cost of the boer war, made the britosh borrow $4bill from the USA
the gold reserves dwindled- britian often paid back the debt in gold and when material ran low they often paid for raw materials and food in gold- this mean that there gold standard was not working -
the loss of markets- japan gained major industries and britain never got them back as well as the development of national industries in some colonies like india
loss of production- the factories and industries had to be tailored to wartime production
problems for the banks to lend money overseas- all these problems amalgamated further weakened britians holld on the empire and their ability to maintain empire -
india contributed 146£ mill and 1.3 mill men to britian in the war
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the tangible contribution from empire, changed the pre 1914 general consensus that no attempt to artificially increase the economic value of the empire should be done.- showing that the free trade before perhaps downplayed the economic importance of empire- but the attitude returned amid the 1929 great deppression
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they gained and developed more markets in 1914- 2/3 of their imports came from britian but this changed- expansion of indian manufacturing abilities to match the demand
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conscription was introduced in 1916 and 1917 for canada and new zealand but australia avoided conscription in two referendums
canada became an industrial power- trade with us- brot loss markets in canada
economic disruption for new zealand and australia due to trade disruptionn huge impact because they sourced food and raw materials- less impactful for new zealand because it was a smaller nation but australia hit hard- blamed brit for mismanagement. -
16,000 nzlnds
61,000 canadians,
60,000 australians
and 7000 south afrns -
2.5 mill men from colonies and 5 mill from british isles fought in ww1
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general smuts helped lead fight against german colonies in africa, he was a parrt of the winston churchills war cabinet
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in the interwar period singapore had an expedniture of £25mill for the long term plan of a secure naval base as a deterrence to japanese agression
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the ghadar conspiracy in 1915 which was led by expatriate indians in canada,usa and helped by the germans inorder to achieve outbreak of revolt and weaken british control in india. And the singapore mutiny- was an attempt to provoke mutiny both failed
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after he returned to ind
served as a lawyr in SA 20yrs, advocating for more rights -
for future imperial self sufficiency
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initial enthusiasm dropped
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was put down by brits who had an exorbiant reaction and reprisals, the public did not initially support the I|RA and rebels but following the brit reprisals alot of support was fostered for them.
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edwin montague - secretary of state at time promised self gov to inds
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1/3 of munitions used in fr 1917-18 where canadian,
SA helped with wheat and other goods -
taught subjects to be goodd colonial servants created in 1917
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foreign sec, arthur balfour sent a letter to rotschild, ldr of jew community decl support for zionist, found a homeland in palestn, not sep jew state tho, do not undermine rights of arabs
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9% pop, 60,000
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was seen as a pro brit affair and there was protests, esp anti conscription 1918
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sinn fein= leader michel collins- irish part of indep won majority seats= 78 seats
made an irish repub in dublin- dali eireann. -
took place in france, coincided with the paris peace conf and atermath of ww1
wanted to advocate for self determin
and express the brutal supression and opresn of african peoples under eu colonial rule -
it was 13x the boer war , brit borrowed 4bill just from USA
pound had to be removed from gold standard
gov debt rose from £700 mill in 1914 to £7.5bn in 1919 because of gov borrowin to pay for war -
had formed the wafd party post war- made protectorate and offered greater independence but the british failed to comply and materialise it- he wanted to represent the egyptiian interest at the 1918 paris peace conference but was not allowed- brit detained him and some other mbs and exiled to malta- huge protests- ppl saw him as the face of ntnlsm
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gave the brits the right to arrest and punish anyoone who protested against british rule
let to the amritsar/ jaliwalabah massacre -
limited self gov, sharing pwr viceroy and ind ministers
quell nationalists, step towards dom status, not happy!
introduced dyarchy- dual governance- montagu-chelmsford reforms, certain areas of administration given to inds while others where still under brits
split the legislative cuncil in 2
lowr house- 104 of 144 mbs elected
and uppr house 34 of 60mbs elected -
mass resistanc end tragic results
office dyer opened fire on a crowd killing- in a closed garden a peaceful gathering of people,
50solds open fire for 10min, cerce 400 deaths brits say but inds say 1000
dyer said to teach moral lesson- killled brits claim that rule over ind was good and moral
inflamed gandhi who took a more proactive role after
made non-coop movement 1922 -
joined INC in 1919, disagrd with gandhi on future of ind, wanted an industrial and modern india, but gandhi wanted a rural and agricultural ind
was indias first prime minister in 1947 -
at cambridge 1919, by experts in emp, vere hamsworth chair
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against brits
aftr brit exile the nationalist ldr saad zaghlul
women took over fight- husbands weren't allowed
made the wafd party to represent the egyptian indp at paris peace conf
pm of egyp-1st one
800 dead egyps, 1,600 wounded -
seinnfein, republican party declare independence and the ira forms and attacks brit troops and police
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was a lwayer who protestd agaisnt brits, who squeezed egp during the war, took famrers to be labourers, prostitution and alcohol, had them fighting the ottomans and nazis, disastrous gallipoli campaign. got nothing for it.
all egpys gathered strikes- paralysed country, transport and students
open fire brits-kill many ppl
next day wife protest of exiled nationalists i.e safia zaghul -
invstm in the cotton- to increase production, building of a great damn and irrigation project
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post war treaties, deciding on hot to govern and split the german colonies after the loss of the nazis
-make them politically and economically dvlp
fr and brit had experience
split them in 3 categories, abc, show how close each one is to being able to self govern -
organsd by ganhi after the amritsar massacre
satyagraha- peaceful demonstartions -
ex soldiers who were known by the name black and tans because of the uniform they wore, known for thier violent mthds, open fired on a gaelic football match
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rose from £369mill in 1913 to £600mill in 1920
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1921- Brit meeting, limited Arab represent
allow some freedon and local self gov but british remain control of military and foreign affairs -
created the irish free state as a self governing dominion - 6 norhter states opted out, but conflict not over because eamon de valera- said the treaty did not acknowledge ireland as a republic and it included the splitting of the country
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imprt strategically, close to IND, near persian gulf and rich oil supply, bbut anxious because the situation was growin tense, arabs want control of their own future
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the govenor of nigeria received £8250 per annum whereas a cadet in kenya received 200£
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follwoing the troubles , the IRA, bad, proximity to engl, rest of world watching, also one of engls oldest colonies
formal independence was given in 1931 following the statue of westminister -
but was a client state till 1954
brit troops in egyp till 1936- anglo-egyp treaty -
establ in 1922
tecknical skls with just 14 students studying carpentry, mechanics and building expanded to become prime centre of educat in east afr- uganda, offered medicals, nursing, architecture, and offrd post skl certificates, became a ucl affiliate -
faisal I as king confirmed
renowned arab and muslim ldr who was on good terms with the brits
promised full consultation between powers on foreign policy
brit control military bases and has much control on the army -
campaign for afr rights and representation.
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stressed that the interest of black africans had to be represented.
was made due to the rising anger of the kikuyu tribe in kenya who were heavily taxed and opressed by the 20-30,000 whitesettlerss who made up most of the legislative council. they taxed them and refused to let them grow commercial products as to limit competition -
with the defeat of eamon de valera and the republicans
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gov contributed £2.2 mill,
pavillions represnt every country in the empire. bought back spheres and even people attracted many- hwvr not an estimate of how this had to fair with empire because it was just an amusement park. the wembley stadium lasted as a permanent symbol of the legacy of emp.
17 mill ppl visited 1924 and over 9 mill in 1925. -
made the imperial march and other known empire songs/ sounds
'land of hope and glory' -
provided trips to emp, upper middle class could afford this.
allowed people who already had a connection to the emp through their family or friends
may 1920 2 SA's flew from cairo to cape- huge excitement -
was done to stabalise the currency, tried to reinstate pre-war era financial strucutres and to strengthen international trade relations
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one was for the dominions and one was for the colonial office
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in east africa, in 1925 but this was limited bcuz much of these projcts had to be self financing so it led to high taxation . brit it no position to afford expsnv foreign invstmnts- in aftermath of ww2
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brought together west afr students studying in lond- inspire greater radicalism, it worked they got the expeditions to close- at least those with the humans- the 1924 wembley empire expedition- £20mill ehbition, boost morale and money after ww1, 24mill visitors, had an afrcn village- press named them as curious and cannibals- sparked outrage
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declared that the dominions were autonomuous states equal to britain - issued by the arthur balfour
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leo amery set it up in 1926 to promote knowlege and ppls feeling towards empire. hwvr it was shut down in 1935.
through posters and marketing boards
howvr many where vry random and not explicitly linked to empire and so people were confused. -
proposed in 1927 by leo amery - was to ensure that colonies would be rule in a way that would favour and reconcile the needs of the indigenous people and the whites
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leo amery colonial secretary- argues in favour of trusteeship
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nehru proposed plan for indp india without any special rights for muslims- jinnah reject and proosed 14 points on what muslim life in an independent india would be like.
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no indian represnetation
give more power to the princely states, review innd act
incorp brit rule under federal gov and system with the prncly states -
was a financial and newspaper magnate who advocated for preferential trafe - imperial preference in the wake of the great depression in 1929, owned the daily express- became most read newspaper in world- so gave him a huge audience to spread his ideas
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3,000 women protested against the new market tolls, they demanded a return to traditnl values
brit imposed tax on southeastrn nigeria, the price of oil and palm kernels collapsed- fell by 12% that yr alons, then they started counting women for a consensus and then them fearing they too were going to be taxed started protesting -
ruled out trusteeship for east africa in favour of trusteeship in 1929
the royal comission- under sir endward hilton young -
gave £1mill of treasury funds for dvlpmnt projects across the emp. rlly helped afr colonies.
no where near enough money as was needed and was rather tokonistic -
there was another in 1931 but the huge pro jew feeling in brit and usa forced gov to back down
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about 3mill men or 20% of the work force of brit at time were unemployed- characterised the 1930's economy
already decaying staple treaties like ship-building and repair touched 62% unemployment in 1932 -
his writings included childrens stories of jungle and adventure based on heroic imperial figures
talk and teaching of geo, hstry -
was a 24 day march- where gandhi and his followers marched 24 miles inorder to make salt and define the salt laws- ganhi was imprisoned and 80k followers were gaoled for the civil disobedience this provoked
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ganhi present for the 2nd not for the first because he was imprisoned due to the salt marches, no agrmnt reached, want to give ind dominion status , they wanted indpndc.
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one from 1930-31 and another from 32-24
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recruitment generly improv, esp in afr, most came from same private/ good skls
gov of nigeria earn about £8250 per annum where as cadet in kenya gets about £200 per annum -
49th parallel- a film that encouraged tolerance and acceptance of other cultures
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16.9% or 175,000
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was made in 1931 by noel cowards- more mocking of empire
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they tried to return to the 1914 order where the currency exchange rate was 1£ for every $4 dollar but this was unatainable and it made british goods very expensive which led to less exports and lower gold earnings, depletion in gold reserves not fixed so gold reserves remained low
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existed throughout gradually being built but it was more organised after 1931 when britian abandoned the gold standard.- was fundamental in salavging britians international prestige and economic position was very important as it kept britan trading partners, many colonies pegged their currencies to the sterling.
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went a step further from trusteeship- intoduction of dual mandate- colonial power had a double responsibility to the colonial people it had to give moral and material advancement leading to self government and to the outside world it promised that the resources were developed and exploited
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dominions became autonomous
gov generals not imperial officials anymore just representatives of the crown. -
- Gandhi-Irwin pact (irwin was the viceroy at time) was for Ganhi to supsend the civil disobedience movement. Marked cooperation with brit and indian, agrred to release political prisoners that had not been violent, led to the second round tble conference. Important- marked a truce and showed the British govenors were willing to cooperate with Indians
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helped to promote the emp, first dirctr john reith, took a strong imperial stance covered many pro imprl events like ehibitions , events, public celebrations.
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the 4th financial crisis made the british go off the gold standard again and move more towards a policy of imperial trade and preference especially with the ottowa conference of 1932
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after 12 yrs of rule, nationalist sought indp, nevr rlyy stable
indp under king faisal I, close econ link with brits
gradual transfer of power- through treaties, done in good time for brits -
irlnd- largest party in parliament fianna fail- ldr eamon de valera, no secret wanted all 32 provinces under a unified indpnd irln state.
by 1932 late- trade war with huge duties against goods from the other country imposed. -
christmas broadcasts that included but were not limited to the kings speech started in 1932
focused peoples idea and mind on the loyalty and imperial unity of emp
15 min segments/talks from experts on diff parts of emp, so they would be exposed to diff cultures -
put a 10% tax on all imports except those from crown colonies
made preferential treatment between the doms and brit in their export markets
reinforc immportance of emp in supplying foodstuff and raw materials to brit -
exprts to emp 41.3% and imports 41.2%
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increase the number of people that can vote and strngth elected provincial assemblies
expnd franchise form 7mill to 35 mill
made provinces gompltly self gov -
viceroy of ind for 7yrs,
inds dont like him bengal famine - 3mill dead
blamed for division and lack of econ develp
prov of greater rights in gov
gave gov of ind act 1935 -
they attacked jews, growing disdain at increasing nb of jews
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brit troops withdraw only there to protect the suez canal
10,000 troops allowed in the suez canal zone
egyp assisted to join league of nations -
shows imperial propaganda, unite all the subjects of emp
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laid claim to all 32 provinces and declared itself a sovereign, independent, domestic state
done by eamon de valera after having refused to attend the imperial conference in 1937 -
it recommended the partition of land into jewish and arab sections. was opposed by the arabs
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publicly hanged over 100 arab terrorist
1937-39 -
however it was reduced to £70mill by invisible earnings from emp
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great success with 12m visitors, chance to boo;st scott economy after great depression 1938
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this would continue/ supposd to for the next 10yrs
didn't bcuz of nazi persecution. -
an imperial film that uses empire as a backdrop for adventure, gets ppl excited and thinking about empire
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the british lost 54% of its flee access or 11.7 million tons of shipping in the first few months of the war which further deteriorated the economic problems and the tradinng relations
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Lahore resolution- Pkstn resolution muslims they felt that there rights were not secure in a uniteed India. Muslim league under Jinnah met in lahore to demand a separate state for muslims. First official demand for Pakistan.
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different to the 1929 plan- which only gave 1 mill, this gave up 5mill a year for develop and half a mil for welfare but later increased. gave more funds and marked britihs recognition for long term plans and investment into the empire, gave funds and made them present concrete plans which made britain more involved and the plans/ projects ideally more solid- but also tightened briitsh involvement and control
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the japanese attacking asia trying to expand their emp, wanted to go after ind too
brits largest military base, led to the largest surrndr in brit history, churchill said it was '' the worst disaster and largest capitulation in Brit history'' -
in summer, looked ready to attck ind, but brit averted and rolled back conquest
jpn success ends idea white supremacy and white invincability. -
what ganhi said to sir stafford cripps when he offered india dominion status
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done by ganhi- was imprisoned many timmes, censored
did peaceful prtests, hunger strikes and salt marches -
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chandra bose was the leadr, fought against the british, in burma and was fighting for independence of india
was sprtf by the imperial jpns
consisted of ind soldiers who were captured by jpn
30,000 sldrs -
during ww2 1/3 of british overseas assets were sold inorder to pay for the war - shows the economic toll that the war had on britain
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nkrumah-ghana, kenyatta-kenya and banda-malawi,
left from manchester knowing definetly where we were going -
the end of the idea of white supremacy and invincibility, Ngugi wa Thiango
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the usa abruptly ended the lend lease programme- in late august of 1945- this was an end of an economic lifeline in a time where britain was marked by economic burden incurred during the war- the gold depletion meant britain had borrowed $4bill- in the face of this john maynard keynes went to negotiate a deal with the USA
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negotiated a huge loan with the us of £900 mill but this came with huge conditions, Brit had to make thepound freely convertible- did not happen, ran out of money in 6 weeks and had to stop of dollar convertibility- mostly due to immperial demands- showed the weakness of the british economic state
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was sent to bring ind independ, ind no longer a cotton market, was draining resources, not woth fghtn nationalist mvmnt.
decision to partition india, bring indp by june 1948 -
hugely chaotic, millions dead and huge violence ensued, exodus of ppl fleeing to part where there religion is most prominant
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ernest bevin gave it to UN- then in nov announced they would quit bcuz they did not agree with UN's plan for partition and lvls of immigrtn
brit did not know how to approach prob
wanted usa sprt- they sprtd jews
but didnt want to alienate arabs- whom they needed -
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many lamented the loss of india and the dissolution of empire, they were proud of emp, saw it as a force of good and that it was one of the reasons brit fought 2 world wars
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completely seperated itself from britain- showed that fighting agains the british in effect was successful.
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atlee unwilling to send troops
was with jpns in ww2, saw brit likely to win war and so switched sides -
by hindu nattionalist- being in favour of muslms
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