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The Growth of Vietnamese Nationalism
By the early 1900s, nationalism had become a powerful force in Vietnam. Several political parties pushed for independence or for reform of French colonial rule. Among the leaders of the nationalist movement was Nguyen That Thanh—better known by his assumed name, Ho Chi Minh. After years in Europe, China, and the Soviet Union, he returned to Southeast Asia. There, he helped found the Indochinese Communist Party in 1930 and worked for independence. -
American Involvement in Vietnam
In 1940, Japan invaded Vietnam, becoming one of a series of foreign nations to rule the Asian country. The Chinese had controlled the region for hundreds of years. -
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America Aids the French
As the fighting escalated, France asked the United States for help. The request put American officials in a hard position. The United States opposed colonialism. It had pressured the Dutch to give up their empire in Indonesia and supported the British decision to give India independence in 1947. American officials, however, did not want Vietnam to be Communist.
China’s fall to communism and the outbreak of the Korean War helped convince President Truman to aid France. -
Defeat at Dien Bien Phu
The turning point came in the mountain town of Dien Bien Phu. By seizing the town, the French planned to cut the Vietminh’s supply lines and force them into open battle. Soon afterward, a huge Vietminh force surrounded Dien Bien Phu and began bombarding the town. On May 7, 1954, the French forces fell to the Vietminh. The defeat convinced the French to make peace and withdraw from Indochina. -
Geneva Accords
Negotiations to end the conflict were held in Geneva, Switzerland. The Geneva Accords provided for a temporary division of Vietnam along the 17th parallel. Ho Chi Minh and the Vietminh controlled North Vietnam, and a pro-Western regime led by the anti-Communist Ngo Dinh Diem held the South. French troops left, and the United States became the principal protector of the new government in South Vietnam. The accords called for elections to be held in 1956 to reunite the country under 1 government. -
American Involvement Deepens
After Ngo Dinh Diem refused to hold national elections, Ho Chi Minh and the Communists began an armed struggle to reunify the nation. They organized a new guerrilla army of South Vietnamese Communists, which became known as the Vietcong. Eisenhower sent hundreds of military advisers to train South Vietnam’s army, but the Vietcong continued to grow more powerful because many Vietnamese opposed Diem’s government. By 1961, the Vietcong had established control over much of the countryside. -
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Kennedy Takes Over
When President Kennedy took office in 1961, he continued to support South Vietnam, believing the country was vital in the battle against communism. From 1961 to late 1963, the number of U.S. military personnel in South Vietnam jumped from about 2,000 to around 15,000. Yet they failed to shore up the floundering Diem regime. For example, the South Vietnamese created special fortified villages known as strategic hamlets. They then moved villagers to these hamlets, despite the peasants’ resentment. -
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The Overthrow of Diem
In August 1963, U.S. ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge arrived in Vietnam. He learned that several Vietnamese generals were plotting to overthrow the unpopular Diem. When Lodge expressed U.S. sympathy for their cause, the generals launched a military coup, seizing power on November 1, 1963. They executed Diem soon after. Despite his unpopularity, Diem had been a respected nationalist. After his death, South Vietnam’s government weakened. -
Johnson and Vietnam
After Kennedy's assassination, President Johnson took office and escalated U.S. involvement in Vietnam, fearing political fallout if the country fell to Communism. In August 1964, following alleged attacks on U.S. ships, Johnson secured congressional approval for military action through the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. Despite some advisers warning against deeper involvement, Johnson and most officials supported escalating the conflict to protect American interests. -
A Bloody Stalemate
By the end of 1965, more than 180,000 U.S. combat troops were fighting in Vietnam. In 1966, that number doubled. The U.S. military entered Vietnam with great confidence. “America seemed omnipotent then,” wrote one of the first marines to arrive, Philip Caputo, in his prologue to A Rumor of War.
Lacking the firepower of the American forces, the Vietcong used ambushes, booby traps, and other guerrilla tactics. These techniques could be greatly destructive.