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Restored Bourbon monarch after Napoleon’s fall; ruled as a constitutional monarch until his death. -
A meeting of European powers after Napoleon’s defeat to restore conservative order, redraw borders, and reestablish monarchies.
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Napoleon’s final defeat by British and Prussian forces, leading to his second exile and the end of the Napoleonic Wars. -
A brief liberal period in Spain where the 1812 Constitution was reinstated before absolutism was restored by French intervention.
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Charles X was King of France and Navarre between 1824 and 1830. He was the last Bourbon King of France. -
After a long struggle against the Ottoman Empire, Greece gained independence with support from Britain, France, and Russia. -
He came to power after Charles X but was later overthrown due to social unrest. -
Belgium declared independence from the Netherlands, leading to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy.
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A major step toward German unification, this economic union promoted trade among German states under Prussian leadership. -
Established after the fall of Louis Philippe; marked by universal male suffrage and social reforms, it ended with a coup.
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Revolutions of 1848 were a series of revolutions throughout Europe over the course of more than one year, from 1848 to 1849.
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Proclaimed the first king of a united Italy, marking the formal beginning of the Italian nation-state. -
Period in France under the rule of Emperor Napoleon III. The empire was authoritarian but enjoyed economic growth and pursued a favourable foreign policy.
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Key battles in the Second Italian War of Independence, where France and Sardinia defeated Austria in northern Italy. -
Giuseppe Garibaldi led the Expedition of the Thousand to unify southern Italy under the Kingdom of Sardinia. -
Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark and seized the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, a precursor to German unification.
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Also called the Seven Weeks' War; Prussia defeated Austria and excluded it from German affairs, leading to northern unification.
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Conflict engineered by Bismarck; Prussia’s victory led to the fall of Napoleon III and the unification of Germany.
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Proclaimed emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles after the Franco-Prussian War, marking the unification of Germany under Prussia.