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Period: to
Woodrow Wilson's Presidency
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What was life like for women before the Roaring 20s?
-before WW1, girls had to dress and behave modest
-it was taboo to smoke or drink in public
-women were only employed in traditionally female jobs i.e nurses, secretaries, seamstresses -
Period: to
The Roaring Twenties
the massive growth of the US economy following the first world war:
- inflation never rose over 1%
-the number of hours worked by employees reduced
-more people owned cars, telephones and radios
-wages for industrial workers increased by 14%
-GDP surpassed 100 billion dollars -
The main reasons for the economic boom
-Technological advances -Mass production techniques -Spread of electricity -Availability of credit -Mass Marketing- Policies of the Republican Presidents (laissez-faire, tarrifs, low tacation, trusts)
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What influenced the changing role of women in 1920s society?
-jazz clubs
-cinemas
-advertising companies
-mail order companies
-chain stores
-mass production
-cheaper materials
-hire purchase schemes
-young peoples attitudes
-the economic boom -
Why was there social change and growth in popular entertainment in the 1920s?
-people wanted to try new things to escape the memories of WW1 -some Americans had more money & time for leisure -technological advances -many women were no longer content with their traditional role -development of the consumer society -black americans wanted representation -
Period: to
Prohibition
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Technological and scientific advances
-advances in existing technology i.e conveyer belts, concrete mixers, automatic switchboards -this benefited the newer industries i.e electricity, car and film. more efficient production=higher output -Scientific progress helped transform the economy as USA's chemical industry provided fertilisers (increased farming) and dyes (increased clothing production) -They also introduced new materials such as plastics and rayon, which had many uses & lead to cheaper goods -
How did 1920s politics change the role of women in American Society"
-organisations i.e National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) campaigned for decades until finally the 19th Amendment gave women the right to vote (18 Aug 1920) -this was given due to their contribution during WW1. this gave women some political power -polticians now paid attention to views of women as they needed their votes in elections -by 1928, 145 women had seats in state government and 2 were Goveners but politics was still male-dominated -
Mass Production Techniques
-the conveyer belt and assembly line popularized by Henry Ford, meant that goods could be produced in bigger quantities and quicker -machines did not require a high level of skill to operate = many unskilled workers = cheaper goods and increased employment -increased employment = more people w disposable income = increased spending = increased demand = economic prosperity -
How did employment change the role of women in 1920s America?
- 25% increase in working women in1920s. By 1929, 10.6M women were employed.These changes were due to:
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Spread of Electricity across America
- was developing slowly before the boom
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How did Society change the role of women in the 1920s?
compared to the conservative decade prior, amongst women: -smoking and drinking in public increased
-outings without chaperones increased
-clothing became free and lightweight to suite active lifestyle
-playing sports + driving cars increased
-jewlery + makeup consumption increased
-suggestive new dances i.e shimmy introduced
-kissing men in public increased
-contraception used increased=freer sexual habits these women were white, young, middle class and known as flappers -
Why didn't all women embrace the societal changes in the role of women in the 1920s?
-working class/rural women could not afford new fashions and didn't even have time to go out to social events -black women, even if they wanted could not take part int he flapper lifestyle due to discrimination and poverty -Christian women especially in the Bible Belt dissaproved of the immorality -older people disliked the immodesty and some flappers were shunned. -
The availability of credit/hire purchase
-credit firms emerged from an expansion technique businesses were using to sell shares on the stock market -firms let consumers pay for goods in small instalments at low interest rates -led to increased demand. more americans could buy expensive items they wouldn't otherwise afford. -demand led to more jobs and more consumers -
Why was radio important to changing society in the 1920s
-spread new ideas to small towns & remote areas i.e jazz music
-people were able to hear up-to-date news
-literacy was not very high so radio could communicate information
-helped increase consumer boom which led to more employment
-live coverage of boxing and baseball made sports a national pastime, even if they could not afford to go to an actual game -
Mass Marketing
-catalouge shopping became a convenient way to buy goods. by 1928, 33% of americans used it to buy goods -improved roads=improved delivery system -chain stores opened across country=consumer goods available in remote areas=expand customer base=increased demand -large scale advertisements were used for the first time during the war. advertisers learned their skills from war time propaganda. posters, billboards, radios and traveling salesmen encouraged americans to spend -
Why did cinema increase in popularity in the 1920s?
-films were a way of escaping from the world's problems and memories of war
-cinemas were warm & comfy
-people could socialise in them
-entrance was cheap, people of all classes could partake
-films were changed multiple times a week
-variety of popular themes i.e comedy, romance
-cartoons appealed to young audiences i.e Mickey Mouse in 1928
-silent movies=no language barrier -
How was Cinema influential
-lifestyles portrayed were copied, i.e hairstyles, clothes, makeup
-cultural trends extended even to rural parts of the country
-film stars became household names i.e Charlie Chablin
-led to a feel good attitude that helped deal with realities of life -
Policies of Harding, Coolidge and Hoover
- laissez faire: believed government should interfere with businesses and the public as little as possible
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American Exceptionalism
-most americans believed they had a right to prosperity. consuming became seen as part of being american -americans were now prepared to buy goods, try new ideas and invest. -the attitude of saving money for a rainy day seen in the previous decades was replaced by a spending culture -
Why was Henry Ford and the car industry important?
-new production techniques i.e standardisation copied by other industries
-led to expansion of cities&suburbs
-enabled travel to cinemas=stimulated movie industry
- vast network of roads built. ( $1 billion spent on highways p.a)
- encouraged the construction industry i.e building of petrol stations,hotels,restaurants
-grew other industries;cars used 90% of countries petrol, 80% rubber & 75% glass
-big manufacturers i.e Henry Ford influenced government policies because of how wealthy they were -
Consequences of the Boom
most of the consequences were expansions of the causes:
-electrification of America -new mass production techniques -national road networks -expanded towns and suburbs -expanded construction and chemical industries -development of hire purchase -expanded stock market -spread of popular entertainment -sophisticated advertising -chain stores and mail order businesses -
What were the problems with Mass Production?
-workers became bored
-factory owners were anti union
-factories increased bigotry (whites-only policies, anti-Semitism esp. w Henry Ford & his newspaper The Dearborn Independent)
-mecahnisation also led to unemployment; some workers became redundant
-people blamed the car for increased crime and moral decline -
Period: to
Warren Harding's Presidency
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Who did not benefit from the Boom?
BUT FARMERS: fresh vegetables increased in demand amongst rich americans=some farmers capitalized on this and made money AFRICAN AMERICANS: some blacks found fame and success in hollywood -
Why didn't Farmers Benefit from the boom
Europe imported less food from the USA after war. highly efficient Canadian wheat producers provided strong competition. US population was falling=fewer mouths to feed. overproduction. they were producing too many crops and couldnt sell them. prices fell=farmers borrowing money to survive=sinking further into debt=sold their farms and left =increased homelessness and unemployment amongst farmers. By 1928 half of all US farmers lived in poverty. -
Why didn't Blacks benefit from the Boom?
In the south, many blacks worked on farms owned by white landlords. they were labourores or sharecroppers who were the first to lose work when the farming collapsed. Combined this with Jim Crow laws and the KKK, many black people fled to northern cities (i.e new york, detroit,chicago) after migration conditions remained hard, as they lived in ghettos & "were last hired, first fired" -
What were the problems faced by black Americans?
-Jim Crow laws; white and black americans lived separately and had separate amenities
-blacks could not serve in juries
-schools deliberately kept inferior.
-high illiteracy
-Voting was made difficult (Poll tax, literacy test)
-Forced to work low paid, unskilled jobs
-KKK
-wages were much lower than white wages
-lived in ghettos
-most succesful industries (i.e cars) operated on an all-white policy=given lowly jobs i.e domestic servants -
How did African Americans respond to their intolerance?
-culture (rise of jazz, famous musicians i.e Louis Armstrong) -politics: formation of the NAACP in 1919 and UNIA in 1921 campaigned against lynchings, segregation and used both violent (UNIA) and diplomatic (NAACP) means to campaign for equality -
The rise of the Ku Klux Klan
-racist group which began in southern states after Civil war in 1865 -revived after the release of film "Birth of a Nation" in 1915, glorifying klan -by mid-1920s had 5M members -only WASPs could join; believed in white supremacy -predominantly against blacks but also attacked catholics, jews, immigrants and communists -expanded from the south across the nation, and expanded political influence, i.e Govener of Alabama -
What did the KKK do and why weren't they punished?
the KKK would:
-hold night-time meetings, burn crosses, march in white hoods
-violently attack minorities
-rape and murder
-lynch black people (mob killings w out trial)
- in 1920s over 400 blacks were lynched why the KKK was not punished:
-members held positions of power i.e judges
-support of local policies
-difficult for government to change historical beliefs
-politicians did not want to lose WASP votes -
Why didn't Immigrants benefit from the boom?
were uneducated and willing to work any job for low wages. this led to increased prejudice -
Why was there an influx in American Immigrants during the 1920s?
combination of push/pull factors:
-escape poverty & political persecution
-religious tolerance in Bill of Rights
-industrialisation provided jobs w higher wages
-hope of equality of opportunity -
Economic concerns over Immigrants
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Political concerns over immigrants
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Social Concerns over immigrants
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What caused the Red Scare?
-communists being blamed for strikes
-race riots in 23 cities in 1919, people blamed communism
-bomb on Wall Street in September 1920, killing 38
-the discovery of 36 mail bombs in April 1919 -
Consequences of the Red Scare
-mobs and police attacking leftist parades, seizure of leftist books -all striking/unionized workers were branded communist -increased hostility towards all immigrants, leading to an end of the "Open Door" policy, through laws in 1917, 1921 and 1924 -
Sacco and Vanzetti
-Nicola Sacco & Bartolomeo Vanzetti were Italian anarchist immigrants- In May 1920 they were arrested & accused of armed robbery and murdered, and tried during the height of the Red Scare.
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Consequences of Immigrant intolerance
-employers felt they could exploit minorities: longer hours,less pay
-increased KKK attacks
- intensified red scare
-immigrant communities more isolated
-politicians open about intolerance
-increased deportations
-slowed ethnic/racial diversity -
Why didn't Traditional industries benefit from the Boom?
-failed to respond to mass production methods -workers were not able to ask for better wages and working conditions due to fall of Labour Unions=many left to work in new industries i.e car,electricity -coal prices fell=redundancy -ship building demand decreased after war + less goods were being exported to Europe -new synthetic fibers such as rayon became popular substitutes to cotton. this led to many textile mills closing as it was more efficient to produce than cotton -
Problems faced by Native Americans
-education: native children forced to boarding schools. separated by tribe=destroyed sense of tribal identity. given european names, beaten if native language spoken. forced to christian churches. led to destroying native traditions -religion: native religious activities were banned, tribes were forced into conversion -politics: became citizens in 1924, but most couldnt vote due to literacy test. not allowed to control tribal affairs -low life expectancy, health, & wealth -
The positive impact of The Roaring Twenties
-economic growth (GDP went from $78B to $103B)
-proseprity for businessmen and industrialists
-industrial techniques revolutionised
-increased employment (fell from 11.9M to 3.2M between 1921-1929)
-greater independence and opportunities for middle class women
-development of popular entertainment -
Period: to
Calvin Coolidge's Presidency
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The Monkey Trial
-highlighted conflict between american beliefs and attitude -John Scopes was a modernist high school teacher who deliberately broke Tenesse law in 1925 by teaching evolution in school- this sparked a debate between scientists and fundamentalists
- Scopes was convicted but anti-evolutionalists lost the court of public opinion; they were severely mocked
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What were the reasons prohibition was introduced?
-pressure from temperance/religious groups
-attitudes of industralists
-divisions between brewers and distillers
-patriotism
-anti-immigrant feelings
-political considerations
-financial considerations from the government -
Why did temperance and religious groups advocate for prohibition?
these were organisations such as Anti-Saloon League (ASL) and the Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), but also entire denominations i.e Methodists, Baptists. they claimed:- liquor was responsible for crime and violence
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Why did industrialists advocate for prohibition?
businessmen such as Henry Ford felt alcohol lessened the efficiency of their workers -
Why did divisions between brewers and distillers lead to prohibition?
brewers argued beer was healthy and spirits were harmful to deflect criticism from themselves. This mean there was not a united front by the liquor industry against prohibition -
Why did partiots advocate for prohibition?
most big liquor manufacturers were German (Budweiser) and many breweries were run by german immigrants so it was seen as being disloyal to America to consume it -
Why did xenophobes advocate for prohibition?
In many immigrant communities (i.e Irish, German and Eastern European), drinking was very prevalent. Americans believed Bolshevisim needed drunkards to survive and thrive. Because of the high anti-immigrant feelings during the 1920s, many anti-immigrants were also prohibitionists. -
Why did politicians and the government advocate for prohibition?
-politicians often drank in private but they supported prohibition as it would earn them more votes in rural and conservative areas. -revenue from taxes on people's higher income and new houses would make up for the loss of taxes from alcohol, therefore th government wasnt against it -
Impact of prohibition
-unpopular and widely ignored even by President Harding -resulted in thousands of secret illegal drinking places, known as speakeasies. there were more speakeasies than there had been bars before Prohibition. -led to illegal bootleggers & moonshiners -Alcohol-related deaths increased from 98 in 1920 to 760 in 1926. Homemade moonshine killed as it was too strong or contaminated. -There was a shift from beer to spirits bc it was strong/easy to hide -
Impact of prohibition pt 2
-increase in corruption. Bribing of police, judges & politicians was common. -Prohibition reduced respect for the law. -There was an increase in violence. Between 1926 and 1927, there were 130 gangland murders in Chicago, many linked to Al Capone. -Organised crime expanded. -It split the Democratic Party. The “dries” tended to be from the rural south and west, and the “wets” were mostly from urban areas in the north and east. -It boosted spending on other items, such as guns and cars. -
Why was Prohibition a complete failure
-the lack of public support. american people continued drinking through speakeasies and bootleggers -the law enforces who were corrupt and ignored the law breakers. prohibition agents were paid low salaries ($2500 a year)=prone to corruption -the bootleggers/moonshiners/rum-runners who continued supplying&selling alcohol.also smuggled from mexico&indies -the gangsters who controlled the trade through violence. they supplied alcohol but also ran prostitution and gambling, increasing crime. -
Causes of the Wall Street Crash
-overproduction and underconsumption in agriculture and consumer goods -decline in traditional industries -protectionism -laissez faire -increasing debt -speculation on land and the stock market -
Period: to
The Great Depression
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How did overproduction and underconsumption in agriculture and consumer goods lead to the Crash?
-farming dilemma (described earlier). prohibition also decreased demand for grains (breweries) -by the end of 1929 people who could afford the cars and household gadgets had already bought them. majority americans were poor and could not afford these even on credit. however production continued at the same rate. thus mass production method led to supply exceeding demand. -
How did Protectionism lead to the Crash?
America tried to sell its surplus goods in Europe. However, the Fordney-McCumber Tariff Act 1922 had led to European countries imposing tariffs on American goods, in retaliation to Americas high tarriffs over the 9 years during the boom. Therefore American goods were too expensive to buy in Europe -
How did laissez faire policies lead to the Crash?
-meant there was not enough protection in the economy esp. in banks and stocks -banks were not regulated -there were many unstable small banks that did not have the financial resources to cope with the rush for money when the crash happened. -many banks had closed even before the crash leaving thousands of customers with no money at all -
How did debt increasinglead to the Crash?
-many Americans bought goods on hire purchase meaning they owed money to shops&credit companies. -many businesses went into financial crises when people failed to pay their debts. -house prices increased a great deal in the early 1920s. But after 1926, house prices fell leaving some Americans owning houses that were worth less money than what they had paid for them -
How did speculation lead to the crash?
- many americans joined the stock market. they saw wealthy people making huge profits from simply buying and selling shares and were attracted to this "get rich quick" method. this is speculation, a form of gambling.
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Speculation pt2
Low interest rates encouraged speculation and on the margin. Banks also became invlovled in speculation. They used savers' money to invest in shares and lent money to stockbrokers and speculators. Throughout the 1920s, share prices rose steadily, meaning people made more profits, however prices and speculation massively spiked in 1928, increasing confidence A key factor for all this is condidence. if people are confident prices will rise, more people would buy rather than sell. -
Period: to
Herbert Hoover's Presidency
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Shorter term causes of the Wall Street Crash
-Hoover's election promise: said he would increase tariffs, boosting shares and prices on the stock. Senate blocked this promise, meaning people sold their shares and prices dropped -Loss of Confidence: experienced investors knew economy was slowing and shares were overvalued. their lack of confidence meant they sold shares in large numbers, causing prices to drop further -
Black Thursday
12.8 million shares were sold on this day. prices plummeted and the stock market began to crumble -
Black Tuesday aka The Wall Street Crash
the collapse of the economy was complete. 16 million shares were sold at a fraction of their price. people saw their fortune in shares, life savings or any money they had in banks completely disappear. those who bought on the margin not only lost their investment but also owed money to the banks that granted the loans -
Consequences of the Wall Street Crash
-Big business/banking collapsed: America's GNP dropped by almost 50%. firms went bankrupt. buisnessmen suicides increased. banks collapsed -Loss of confidence in business -Massive unemployment: people could no longer afford consumer goods, workers made redundant -Homelessness/Starvation -Low wages and long hours for the employed -Deeper distress for farmers -
Workers during the depression
-unemployment increased from 1.6m in 1929 to 14m in 1933 -wages reduced and work hours increased. government workers were not paid when city councils went bankrupt -starvation grew as workers could not afford basics. many died of starvation or malnutrition illnesses. 33% of New York children were malnourished. -homelessness soared. by 1932 over 250k could not pay their mortgages and were evicted. most lived on the streets or in Hoovervilles (shanty towns of poor quality homes) -
Workers during the Depression part 2
- reliance on charity and relief schemes escalated. America did not have unemployment benefits. local government schemes that helped the unemployed people (clothing drives/bread handouts) were cut back as the unemployment meant low income taxes
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Farmers during the depression
-2 million bankrupt farmers/unemployed people became hobos, wandering the country looking for work. -Prices were so low, farmers left the crops to rot in the fields and killed their animals -From 1930 onwards, farmers in the Mid-West were hit by a series of droughts, which eventually created the Dust Bowl of 20 million hectares of land. -Farmers in the Tennessee Valley had their crops and topsoil washed away by floods. -
The 1932 Presidential Election
Franklin D Roosevelt, a Democrat won the presidency in a landslide victory, also winning huge majorities in both Houses of Congress. Hoover won only 6 of the 50 states -
Reasons for the 1932 election results
-Hoover's unpopularity
-Roosevelt's appeal -
Hoover's unpopularity
-the great depression deepened during his presidency. there was massive destitution, shanty towns were even named after him
-he refused to introduce direct aid to the poor until 1932 and when introduced it was too little too late
-provided totally inadequate help to farmers especially in the Dust Bowl regions.
-Voters disliked his emphasis on self relias
-He offered no new policies&blocked ones that would help (Garner-Wagner Relief Bill)
-methods used to remove Bonus Army was horrific to many -
Franklin D Roosevelt's appeal
-he already helped the poor as Govenor of New York by starting the first state-run relief scheme. -election promises: New Deal, active government, stop exploitation, public works/relief schemes, try revive agriculture and industry -ran a positive energetic campaign unlike hoover. travelled around america despite being paralyzed from the waist down -many of his ideas were vague,traditional or contradictory but the people were desperate for change -
Period: to
Franklin Roosevelt's Presidency
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The New Deal
this was a set of proactive policies to tackle the Great Depression. The main aim of the deal was to save American capitalism. The New Deal enabled Congress to pass 15 major new bills addressing a range of problems. It was the most intense federal government intervention program thus far in th US -
The Hundred Days and Alphabet Agencies
Roosevelt worked hard during the first 100 days of his presidency to produce a range of sweeping measures. New organisations were created to help different groups of people and issues contributing to the Great Depression. They were often called by their initials and were known as alphabet agencies. They tackled: -farmers -the unemployed -business and workers -rural america -
Alphabet agencies: Farmers
-FCA(Farm Credit Administration) gave money to farmers struggling to pay their debts. 20% of farmers benefitted. -AAA(Agricultural Adjustment Agency) paid farmers to produce less so prices could rise and farmers could make profits. This was criticized as farmers were paid to destroy food -
Alphabet agencies: The unemployed
-CCC (Civilian Conservation Corps) gave 3 million unemployed men ages 18-25 jobs on conservation projects -PWA (Public Works Administration) created jobs by paying unemployed people to build schools, bridges and dams -
Alphabet agencies: businesses and workers
NRA (National Recovery Administration) set fair prices, wages and working conditions. Businesses that chose to participate displayed a blue eagle logo. Around 2.5mil firms employing 22 million workers joined the scheme -
Alphabet agencies: Rural America
TVA (Tennessee Valley Authority) redeveloped a huge area that covered several states known as the Dust Bowl that suffered from soil erosion and flooding. The people living there were generally poor. The TVA created dams to improve soil quality and generate electricity -
The Second New Deal
The US was still recovering less quickly than Europe and people were quickly losing patience for the Alphabet Agencies. This led to Roosevelt passing huge new laws; The Second new deal which entailed: -Wagner Act: all employees could join unions&could not be fired for doing so -Social Security act provided state pensions for eldery/widows, & an unemployment insurance scheme. -WPA (Works Project Administration) created jobs -
Opposition to the New Deal
came from two angles: -it had gone too far (republicans, the wealthy, businesses) -hadn't gone far enough (huey long, francis townsend, father charles coughlin) -
Why did republicans believe the New Deal was doing too much?
-believed in laissez faire, thought that huge government projects were communist -believed it created budget deficits (spent more than they collected in taxes) -thought money was being wasted on unnecessary jobs -
Why did businesses believe the New Deal was doing too much?
-did not like how much it intervened in industry practices, i.e NRA regulated wages, working hours and prices -hated the power of workers and trade unions created by the Wagner Act -hated that they had to fund social security -American Liberty League was created by wealthy business men and conservative politicians. believed New Deal was a threat to free enterprise -
Why did Huey Long believe the New Deal wasn't doing enough
-was govener of Louisiana. In 1934 he announced a social and economic reform plan called Share Our Wealth.- This guaranteed minimum wage and limits the fortunes of the wealthy.
- by 1935 Long gained around 7.5 million supporters and planned to run against Roosevelt in 1936, but he was assasinated in Sept. 1935
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Why did Dr Francis Townsend believe the New Deal wasn't doing enough
Dr Francis Townsend set up an organisation called the Old Age Revolving Pension Plan. Townsend proposed that everyone over the age of 60 who was retired should get a pension of $200 a month provided they spent this money. This would provide jobs for the unemployed and a stimulus to the economy. -
Why did Father Charles Coughlin believe the New Deal wasn't doing enough
Father Charles Coughlin, known as the radio priest, was initially a supporter of Roosevelt. However, Coughlin became a fierce critic, accusing Roosevelt of failing to tackle the problems of the poor. He set up the National Union for Social Justice, which promised work and fair wages for all. He was mainly influential through his weekly broadcasts, which are estimated to have attracted over 30 million listeners. -
Supreme Court Controversy
-Roosevelt won the 1936 election in a landslide. -The strongest opponent to the New Deal was the Court as it was full of Republicans and could overturn laws. -By 1936, the Supreme Court had ruled against 11 out of 16 alphabet laws. -In 1937, FDR tried to enlarge the court by ‘packing’ it with six new justices who might be more supportive. -He was criticised by members of his own party, his supporters, Republicans & his opponents & was accused of acting like a tyrant. -
Was the New Deal a Success for Women?
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Was the New Deal a Success for Farmers?
-most help went to large scale farmers -AAA helped as farmland evictions dropped -TVA taught farmers new techniques that helped control erosion/increase producticity -But AAA displaced many sharecroppers as farms were ecouraged to produce less -
Was the New Deal a Success for Workers?
-provided relief and jobs for both the skilled and unskilled -NRA set fairer prices, wages and working conditions -Wagner Act allowed employees to join trade unions and stopped employers from using unfair working practices -
Was the New Deal a Success for African Americans?
-10% of budget for relief programmes were targeted to African Americans. many found jobs through these schemes -NRA excluded blacks from skilled jobs and paid them lower wages. -segregated camps were a feature of CCC -roosevelt did not end segregation or increase civil rights. he refused to support a federal anti-lynching bill as he would lose southern Democrat Senators supports -
Was the New Deal a Success for Native Americans?
-Indian Reorganisation Act 1934 provided money to help native Americans to buy and improve land.
-Indian Reservation Act 1834 helped native Americans to preserve and practice their traditions, laws and cultures
-The death rate in their communities declined for the first time in centuries as the population began to increase
-they still continued to experience high levels of poverty