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Paleolithic Art (c. 40,000-10,000 BCE) consists of portable carvings, cave paintings, and sculpted figurines which feature animals and people with symbolic meaning. Some common themes within paleolithic art would be survival, hunts, fertility, ritual practices through the use of stone, bones, ivory, and paints. Paleolithic art transmits stories of our early hunter-gatherer ancestors through their natural endeavors, allowing us to comprehend their understanding of their religion and culture.
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The Venus of Dolní Věstonice depicts a small feminine figurine with exaggerated breasts, hips, and belly, clearly emphasizing a reoccurring theme of fertility during the Paleolithic era. This sculpture is also one of the earliest known clay fired ceramics, highlighting the ritual practices of the upper paleolithic communities and even features a fingerprint of a child embedded on its surface. -
The Bradshaw Rock Paintings demonstrate human figures with elegance, clothed with ornaments, tassels, and sashes, symbolizing the heirarchies that took place during the time. These artworks were tucked away in ancient rock shelters and are considered one of the earliest recordings of a cultural significance in a community, highlighting themes of ancient social order along with law. -
The Nourlangie Rock Art displays vivid paintings that spans from thousands of years, the subjects in these paintings, had long limbs along with very expressive facial expressions. The images surrounding the subjects in the photo display fish and wallabies that were made using natural pigments, emphasizing development of connection and movement between communities.. -
The symbolic and even functional works created by very early agricultural cultures, such as megalithic structures, pottery, carvings, and figurines is what defines Neolithic Art (c. 10,000-2,000 BCE). Themes within Neolithic Art would be fertility, cultural rituals, life and death. The communal and spiritual life of early settling communities is conveyed within Neolithic art, which internationally emerged when agriculture came about, giving us insight on early human practices.
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The Ain Ghazal Statue (c. 6500) was formed over a skeleton of reed, then covered with plaster, and had bitumen painted eyes. The statues would be laid out under the floors of homes, which emphasize how these figures may have served a key role in the Neolithic themes of spirituality and life during this era. -
The Adam of Macedonia (c. 6000 BCE) is one of the oldest human figurines ever found, the figurine demonstrates a sat male torso with detailed human anatomy which highlights the exceptional artistic skill despite the era. The detail in anatomy and posture of the statue emphasizes the theme of male spirituality and the role of a man within Neolithic Macedonian culture. -
The Tumba Madžari Figurines (c. 5500 BCE) are clay figures that were most likely used as altars, which had projected breasts, open arms, and large eyes. The feminine figure along with the cubic base suggests a connection between home and a mother-like protector, highlighting themes of fertility. -
Ancient Near Eastern Art is the development of artistic traditions that happened in during 5500 BCE to 330 BCE. In this type of art we can see many reoccurring themes of religion and politics, reinforcing the emphasis on authority during this time period. We can see many sculptures of kings, gods, and even mythological being during this era of art.
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Pre-Dynastic Period Art (c. 5000 BCE-3000 BCE) included many examples of early wall paintings, pottery, figurines, and even decorated palettes, demonstrating Egypt's developing culture. During this period we are able to see different types of themes in the artwork, some being power, fertility, and examples of the preparation for the afterlife. Pre-Dynastic art underscores the development of agricultural communities up to a more developed society that would later on define what we know as Egypt.
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The Skara Brae Carved Stone Objects (c. 3200 BCE) are very detailed stone balls which showcase the artistic prowess of the Neolithic community in Orkney, Scotland. The symbolic role of these objects potentially indicates a status of power within their communities, emphasizing the theme of prestige and ceremonial practice in Neolithic Orkney. -
The Westray Wife (c. 3000 BCE) is the only known Neolithic carving of a human that was discovered within Scotland, it featured breasts, arms, and facial details which conveys that it is a female figure. The markings on this artwork such as possible hair and even attire demonstrates Neolithic themes of human identity and symbolic attire. -
Within the Palette of Narmer (c. 3000 BCE) we can see a pharaoh that ruled around 3100 BCE wearing two crowns from different regions of Egypt. The blend of the two crowns highlights themes of harmony and control under his rule, also demonstrating the concept of the divine right to rule. Buis, Alena. “Predynastic and Early Dynastic Art Lesson.” Bccampus.ca, Pressbooks, 2019, pressbooks.bccampus.ca/cavestocathedrals/chapter/predynastic-and-early-dynastic-art-lesson -
Within Old Kingdom Art (c. 2686 BCE-2150 BCE) we can observe many examples of statues, pyramids, tomb paintings, and relief carvings. Some reoccurring themes that we can see in this era of art would be the divine right to rule, along with the afterlife. Egyptians during this era demonstrated how pharaohs kept Egypt under control through statues made of materials such as granite, copper, and limestone in order to create a longer lasting effect on their glory.
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The Striding Figure (c. 2500 BCE) highlights themes of masculinity and power during the Old Kingdom era, it shows a powerful man with bold features, such as a broad collar and moustache. It highlights a regional style of artwork from southern sites like El Kab, distinct from works at Giza and Saqqara Prakash, Tara. “Egypt in the Old Kingdom (Ca. 2649–2130 B.C.) - the Metropolitan Museum of Art.” Metmuseum.org, Feb. 2019, www.metmuseum.org/essays/egypt-in-the-old-kingdom-ca-2649-2150-b-c. -
Within Middle Kingdom Art (c. 2030 BCE-1640 BCE) there is many examples of jewelry, sculptures, and decorations on tombs which underscored the stability that Egypt was experiencing during this era. Reoccurring themes during this period is the day-to-day life of Egyptians, pharaohs, and the afterlife but with much more emphasis and detail in comparison to previous generations of artworks.
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The Statue of the Overseer of Stonemasons Senbebu and Family (c. 1900 BCE) is a statue unlike others, it demonstrates officers in the middle ranks of Egyptian hierarchy. The artwork underscores the development of professional identity during this era, showing how not only pharaohs had great influence. Oppenheim, Adela. “Egypt in the Middle Kingdom (Ca. 2030–1650 B.C.) - the Metropolitan Museum of Art.” Metmuseum.org, Feb. 2019, www.metmuseum.org/essays/egypt-in-the-middle-kingdom-2030-1640-b-c. -
The Investiture of Zimri-Lim (c. 1775 BCE) displays beliefs of divine authority that was held within the Mesopotamian civilization, meaning that their political rulers positions were legitimized through the favor of the gods. The artwork shows the king receiving power from a goddess, it highlights how the concepts of religion and politics were united. -
The New Kingdom (1550 - 1070 BCE) was well known as an era in which Egypt in which they held a high amount of power. Art during this time became much more detailed, there was more use of colors and artworks looked much more realistic. Some common themes during this era would be religion, power, and the afterlife. Some recurring artworks during this era would be wall paintings, stone carvings, along with statues.
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Egypt’s, Temple of Hatshepsut (c. 1465), was made with symmetrical features which include ramps, colonnades carved into limestone, and reliefs showing achievement. The artwork was constructed during Egypt’s New Kingdom, the monument highlights the connection between humans and gods, political stability, and the rise of female power. Egyptian. Temple of Hatshepsut. 1465 BCE. Deir el-Bahri
https://www.memphis.edu/egypt/resources/colortour/westbank3.php -
Ancient Egypts, Bust of Nefertiti (c. 1345 BCE), highlights the change of perspective that Egypt went through in terms of ideal beauty through engravings, vibrancy, and perfection. The artwork work underscores Egypts shift to more natural looking artworks along with religious and political changes. Egyptian. Bust of Nerfetiti. 1345 BCE. Neuse Museum, Berlin.
https://www.smb.museum/en/museums-institutions/aegyptisches-museum-und-papyrussammlung/collection-research/bust-of-nefertiti/the-bust/ -
The Statue of Queen Napier-Asu (c. 1340 BCE) is an embodiment of the power of political authority for the time, the statue had a bronze core weighing in at over 1,700 kg, reflecting the persistence of the royal power in the Elamite society. The durability and the posture of the statue highlights everlasting stability along with the concept of the divine right to rule for political leaders during this time period. -
Within Ancient Egypt's, Akhenaten and His Family, limestone relief artwork we are able to observe Queen Nefertiti, pharaoh Akhenaten, and their daughters under the god of sun, Aten. This specific artwork resembles more of a humane perspective of the royal family of this era, unlike other artworks that try to emphasize dominance and divinity. Egyptian. Akhenaten and His Family. 1340 BCE. Egyptian Museum Berlin.
https://egypt-museum.com/house-altar-of-akhenaten-and-his-family/ -
This iconic gold mask of the New Kingdom era of Ancient Egypt was inlaid with precious stones and engulfed King Tutankhamun's mummified body, we now identify it as Tutankhamun's Funerary Mask (c. 1323). The artwork underscores King Tut's divine perfection along with his eternal spirit that lives on in the afterlife. Egyptian. Tutankhamun’s Funerary Mask. 1323 BCE. Egyptian Museum, Clairo.
https://egyptianmuseumcairo.eg/artefacts/mask-of-tutankhamun/ -
Divinity and power over Egypt is what the Temple of Ramses II (c. 1260 BCE) displays, the Egyptians created huge pharaohs in hopes of portraying these concepts for Ramses II's throughout Ancient Egypt's New Kingdom Era. The monument gives us a glimpse into King Ramses II's dominance and his desire of exhibiting his divine right to rule. Egyptian. Temple of Ramses II. 1260 BCE. Abu Simbel, Egypt.
https://www.britannica.com/place/Abu-Simbel -
The Etruscan Art Period, lasting from 800-100 BCE, was filled with lively art styles and vibrancy that influences Roman culture. Terracotta sculptures, bronze word, paintings, and decorated sarcophagi were common forms of art from this era. Etruscan era art had a lot of emphasis on death, daily life, and religion which displayed their strong fate in the afterlife. Funerary practices, religion, and human emotion were all common themes in the art of this era.
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Within the Archiac Period (650-480 BCE) we can see a display of evolution in Greek culture and art. This era has reoccurring themes of religion, athleticism, and mythology. We can also observe how artists took a more naturalistic form in their work, contrast full from the earlier rigid style. Pottery with black-figures, kouros and kore statues, red-figure techniques, and architectural sculptures were common artworks of this era.
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The Kouros from Attica from Greece’s Archaic Period demonstrates a young human male that is standing in a very upright and rigid posture, he also has a frontal pose with a fix smile which is very common from the Archaic era. It’s symmetrical posture and stylized features portray the period’s emphasis on formalized representation and idealized youth. Greek: Archaic Period. Kouros from Attica. 600 BCE. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/253370 -
Greeks Archaic Period features the Peplos Kore, it is a young woman that is wearing a draped garment, and she stands in a stiff, upright posture and her face features the iconic Archaic smile. The artwork emphasizes the Archaic themes of dedication to deities, religion, and the idealized human form. Greek: Archaic Period. Peplos Kore. 530 BCE. Acropolis Museum, Athens.
https://www.theacropolismuseum.gr/en/statue-kore-peplos-kore -
Sarcophagus of the Spouses displays a husband laid back with his wife and they share a banquet, symbolizing the afterlife and companionship. The expressive faces along with the animated poses emphasizes the reoccurring Etruscan themes of death, family, and celebration. Etruscan. Sarcophagus of the Spouses. 520 BCE. National Etruscan Museum, Rome.
https://www.museoetru.it/works/sarcophagus-of-the-spouses -
The Etruscan artwork, Apollo of Veii, features a dynamic statues that displays the god himself with an archaic smile an he is also mid-stride, showing the viewer the energy and movement of the sculpture. It underscores Etruscan themes such as their interest in mythology, religion, and expressive forms. Etruscan. Apollo of Veii. 510 BCE. National Etruscan Museum, Rome.
https://www.museoetru.it/works/apollo-of-veii -
Roman Republic art displays the civic identity and realism in artwork during the era, primarily through portraits that emphasized the wisdom and experience of rulers in order to display their virtue. Some reoccurring themes during this era would be military success, heroism, public duty, and respect for their ancestors. Lots of different artworks were used in order to celebrate their civic achievements along with their pride such as monuments, coins, and architecture.
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The Kritios (c. 480), was a turning point in Greece’s history towards more naturalistic artworks, in the sculpture we can see a realistic human anatomy coupled with a relaxed stance. The slight details and calm expression on the sculpture emphasizes the Early Classical Periods shift away from rigid, unrealistic forms and towards more lifelike artworks. Greek: Early Classical Period. Kritios Boy. 480 BCE. Acropolis Museum, Athens.
https://www.theacropolismuseum.gr/en/youth-statue-kritios-boy -
Within the Early Classical Period (480 - 450 BCE) the Greek artists swayed towards a more naturalistic and harmonious form of making art. Some common themes of the artworks during this era consisted of the human body, mythology, heroism, and religion. Marble and bronze statues were also very prominent forms of art during this era, many of which had an emphasis on natural movements, harmonious proportions, and ideal human forms.
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Power and the idealized human male body is what Early Classical Period Greece’s “Riace Warrior A” captures, the sculpture displays a figure with very toned muscles and a confident and upright pose. The artworks balance and realism displays the emphasis on harmony, strength, and perfection of the human body during this era. Greek: Early Classical Period. Riace Warrior A. 455 BCE. National Archeological Museum, Reggio Calabria.
https://www.museoarcheologicoreggiocalabria.it/en/riace-bronzes/ -
During the High Classical Period (450 - 400 BCE) we can observe what is widely considered at the peak of Greek artistic achievement. Art became more detailed, had more idealized figures, and had a stronger sense of harmony. Common artworks during this era consisted of marble sculptures grand architectural projects like the Parthenon, and detailed friezes. Some common themes that existed would be idealized beauty, religion, and mythology.
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High Classical Period Greece's "Doryphoros" depicts the ideal human male body during the era, the statue was also made in a contrapposto pose to emphasize the proportion and harmony of the body. The artwork highlights the High Classical Period emphasis on symmetry, perfection, and the idealized beauty on the human body. Greek: High Classical Period. Doryphoros. 440 BCE. National Archeological Museum, Naples.
https://pompeiitourguide.me/2013/04/30/the-doriforo/ -
The Parthenon Frieze demonstrates the procession of the Panathenaic that honors Athena with many lifelike figures in a harmonious motion. It displays Greeks High Classical Periods focus on religion, civic pride, and harmony within their artwork. Greek: High Classical Period. Parthenon Frieze. 440 BCE. Acropolis Museum, Athens.
https://www.theacropolismuseum.gr/en/sculptural-decoration/frieze -
Within the Late Classical Period (400-323 BCE) we can observe how the artwork of this era had much more focus on the individuality of people along with their expression. The Greek artists of this period shifted away from the pre-existing perfectionism in art and focused more on the depth of human emotion along with more natural poses in their artwork. Some reoccurring themes that we are able to see would be human emotion and beauty.
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The Aphrodite of Knidos was amongst one of the first statues to display Aphrodite as nude, displaying her beauty and natural body. The sculpture shows her in a natural/relaxed pose and we can see lots of realistic details that emphasize Late Classical Greece’s focus on realism and gracefulness. Greek: Late Classical Period. Aphrodite of Knidos. 350 BCE. Copy at the Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago.
https://www.artic.edu/artworks/61600/statue-of-the-aphrodite-of-knidos -
Within the artwork, Hermes and the Infant Doinysus, we are able to see a nude sculpture of Hermes gracefully holding Dionysus, a baby god. The sculpture has soft contours and a displays a very natural stance on Hermes, emphasizing the eras shift towards more human connection and emotion focused artwork. Greek: Late Classical Period. Hermes and the Infant Doinysus. 330 BCE. Archeological Museum of Olympia, Greece.
https://ancientolympiamuseum.com/index.php/2022/07/18/hermes-of-praxiteles/ -
Hellenistic Period Art (323 to -31 BCE) consisted of many detailed, highly expressive, and very detailed artworks. Some artworks that we can see in this era would be mosaics, architectural decorations, and marble and bronze sculptures. Common themes of this period consists of emotion, power, and mythology. Greek artists during this era emphasizes emotion, realism, movement, dynamic poses, and intense scenes in their art.
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The Winged Victory of Samothrace (c. 180 BCE) captures movement, power, triumph, and even a timeless sense of elegancy, honoring the naval victory of a goddess by the name of Nike. Its dramatic pose and drapery emphasizes the focus on realism and emotion of the artists of the time. Greek: Hellenistic Period, Winged Victory of Samothrace. 190 BCE. Louvre Museum, Paris.
https://www.louvre.fr/en/explore/the-palace/a-stairway-to-victory -
The Aule Metele demonstrates a roman figure of high government standing and raising his arm, displaying his civic duty and authority in politics. The drapery he wears emphasizes his importance to the republic of the time along with the importance of public service. Roman Republic. Aule Metele. 100 BCE. Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Florence
https://smarthistory.org/larringatore/ -
The Roman Republic's, Head of a Roman Patrician, displays a marble sculpture of an older Roman man with very high detail, highlighting his age, experience, and wrinkles. The realism of the artworks allows us to observe the important Roman themes of wisdom and virtue in leadership for their time period. Roman Republic. Head of a Roman Patrician. 70 BCE. Palazzo Torlonia, Rome.
https://smarthistory.org/head-of-a-roman-patrician/ -
The Denarius of Julius Ceasar features a portrait of Ceasar himself, this marks one of the first times a living Roman leader appearing on a currency. The coin of Julius Ceasar displays his power and the political propaganda that occurred during the end of the republic. Roman Republic, Denarius of Julius Ceasar, 44 BCE, various museums.
https://collections.mfa.org/objects/162037/denarius-with-head-of-c-julius-caesar-struck-under-m-mett?ctx=d2bbcfae-eee4-4bc5-8194-8950349701c4&idx=12 -
Hellenistic Period Greek’s, Laocoön and His Sons, displays Laocoön, a Trojan Priest, and his children in pain against sea serpents, emphasizing how they wanted to warn the Trojans about Greece’s fake gift. It highlights Greece’s focus on dynamic movements and strong expressions during the time. Greek: Hellenistic Period. Laocoön and His Sons. 40 BCE. Vatican Museum, Rome.
https://www.museivaticani.va/content/museivaticani/en/collezioni/musei/museo-pio-clementino/Cortile-Ottagono/laocoonte.html -
During Romes Early Imperial Art era they heavily emphasized perfectionism, power, and loyalty to their emperor, they did so by displaying them as god-like figures to promote their influence on society. Some reoccurring themes during this period would be the peace under Romans, success, religion, and greatness of their society. They used their artworks as a show of power, to unify Roman identity, and to spread propaganda, some of which being monuments, temples, and arches.
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The Augustus of Primaporta is a marble statue that displays a young and god-like figure, emphasizing his perfection. The detail on his armor and his glorious pose advocates his power and the success of the military of Rome under his rule. Early Imperial Art. Augustus of Primaporta. 20 BCE. Vatican Museums, Rome.
https://www.museivaticani.va/content/museivaticani/en/collezioni/musei/braccio-nuovo/Augusto-di-Prima-Porta.html -
The Ara Pacis Augustae celebrates societies peace under the rule of Augustus, the artwork displays reliefs that show political and religious imagery that is connected to the imperial rule. The decoration of the piece promotes the loyalty and unity to the emperor. Early Imperial Art. Ara Pacis Augustae. 10 BCE. Ara Pacis Museum, Rome
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The grand Colosseum was built in order for society to watch games and gladiator events for their entertainment, displaying imperial generosity. The scale of the monument and the engineering that went into the Colosseum shows the amount of power, organization, and wealth that the Roman Empire held during its time. Early Imperial. Colosseum. 75 BCE. Rome, Italy.
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The Early Christian Art ear focused heavily on salvation and hope, they used lots of imagery and symbols to demonstrate their belief in religious during the spread of Christianity. Different types of artworks were used in order to promote Christian ideas such as small sculptures, catacombs, churches, and mosaics. Some reoccurring themes would be the eternal life, bible stories, Jesus, and good over evil.
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The Good Shepard displays good as an all-mighty and caring protector, emphasizing his guidance and salvation. The simple style of artwork and imagery were used during this time period in order to communicate Christian beliefs safely during persecution. Early Christian. The Good Shepard. 275. Rome, Italy.
https://scotland.op.org/the-good-shepherd-from-the-catacombs-of-priscilla/ -
The Tetrarch displays four rulers embracing each other, showing their shared power and unity during a divided empire. The stiff artwork focuses on authority and power more than the identity of individuals and realism. Late Imperial Art. Tetrachs. 300. St. Mark's Basillica, Venice
https://educated-traveller.com/2019/03/30/the-tetrarchs-of-venice/ -
Late Imperial Art consisted of artworks that were much larger than before, they used simpler figures, and used grand monuments in order to emphasize their power and dominance. The art of this era became much more focused on symbolism and authority instead of realism, highlighting the empires change in politics. Some reoccurring themes during this era would be the growing focus on spirituality, imperial power, and military strength.
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The Arch of Constantine honors the victory of Constantine and it is tied with reused sculptures which help connect him with great emperors from the past. The simplified figures on it are very large and it displays the shift towards imperial authority and symbolism. Late Imperial Art. Arch of Constantine. 314. Rome, Italy.
https://www.rome.net/arch-constantine -
The colossal head of Constantine displays him with a serene, powerful expression to emphasize his dominance. The sculpture is oversized and the simplified features on the artwork emphasize his spiritual authority instead of realistic detail. Late Imperial Art. Colossal Head of Constantine. Capitoline Museums, Rome.
https://www.museicapitolini.org/en/opera/statua-colossale-di-costantino-testa -
The Old St. Peter's Basilica in Rome was constructed in order to serve as a major Christian worship center in order to mark the growth of Christianity after the conversion of Constantine. The layout of the basilica became a template for Christian churches that were focused on salvation and community. Early Christian. Old St. Peter's Basilica. 325. Rome, Italy.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Old-Saint-Peters-Basilica -
The Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus includes many different scenes from the bible that show the divinity of Jesus and Christian teachings. The details in the relief emphasize the increasing influence of Christianity among Rome's strongest authority figures. Early Christian. Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus. 359. St. Peter's Basilica Treasury, Vatican City.
https://smarthistory.org/sarcophagus-of-junius-bassus/