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(1789-1797) - No party -
The Second Great Awakening inspired people to improve society, leading to major reform movements like abolition, temperance, and women's rights. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Second-Great-Awakening
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Established a national bank and assumed state debts to stabilize the American economy and strengthen federal authority. https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtid=2&psid=2973
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(1797-1801) - Federalist -
(1801-1809) - Democratic-Republican -
(1809-1817) - Democratic-Republican -
A conflict between the U.S. and Britain over maritime rights that strengthened American nationalism and solidified independence. https://www.nps.gov/stsp/learn/historyculture/nationalism-civic-pride.htm
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(1817-1825) - Democratic-Republican -
Aimed to reduce alcohol consumption, leading to the eventual enactment of Prohibition in the 20th century. https://www.britannica.com/topic/temperance-movement
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(1825-1829) - Democratic-Republican/National Republican -
(1829-1837) - Democratic -
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Authorized the forced relocation of Native American tribes to lands west of the Mississippi, leading to the Trail of Tears. https://americanindian.si.edu/nk360/removal#titlePage
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President Jackson's veto led to the demise of the national bank, increasing state banking power, and contributing to economic instability. https://billofrightsinstitute.org/essays/andrew-jacksons-veto-of-the-national-bank
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(1837-1841) - Democratic -
(1841-1845) - Whig (later unaffiliated) -
(1841) - Whig -
(1845-1849) - Democratic -
The Irish Potato Famine led to a massive influx of Irish immigrants to the U.S., significantly impacting American demographics. https://www.museum.ie/en-IE/Collections-Research/Folklife-Collections/Folklife-Collections-List-(1)/Other/Emigration/Irish-Emigration-to-America
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Resulted in the U.S. acquiring vast territories in the Southwest, reigniting national debates over the expansion of slavery. https://www.nps.gov/teachers/classrooms/lasting-effects-of-the-treaty-of-guadalupe-hidalgo.htm#:~:text=The%20war%20and%20treaty%20extended,a%20nation%2Ddefining%20civil%20war.
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Marked the beginning of the women's suffrage movement in the U.S., advocating for women's rights and equality. https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/essays/seneca-falls-convention-setting-national-stage-womens-suffrage#:~:text=Philosophically%2C%20the%20Seneca%20Falls%20Declaration,in%20the%20great%20American%20democratic
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(1849-1850) - Whig -
(1850-1853) - Whig -
(1853-1857) - Democratic -
Introduced the concept of popular sovereignty to decide on slavery in new territories, leading to violent conflicts and escalating tensions that contributed to the Civil War. https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/Kansas_Nebraska_Act.htm#:~:text=The%20Kansas%2DNebraska%20Act%20repealed,territories%20to%20sway%20the%20vote.
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(1857-1861) - Democratic -
A pivotal conflict over slavery and states' rights that preserved the Union and led to the abolition of slavery in the United States. https://www.britannica.com/summary/Causes-and-Effects-of-the-American-Civil-War
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(1861-1865) - Republican -
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(1865-1869) - Democratic -
Lincoln's death disrupted plans for a lenient Reconstruction, leading to harsher policies under his successors. Jordan, Brian Matthew. “How Lincoln’s Assassination Changed American History.” National Review, April 14, 2024. https://www.nationalreview.com/2024/04/how-lincolns-assassination-changed-american-history/#:~:text=veteran%20Willie%20Clark.-,Lincoln’s%20death%20elevated%20a%20bigoted%20Democrat%20from%20east%20Tennessee%2C%20Andrew,had%20snuffed%20out%20the%20...
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Abolished slavery and involuntary servitude in the United States, except as punishment for a crime. https://www.jackmillercenter.org/our-work/resources/thirteenth-amendment
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Divided the South into military districts and laid out the process for readmission to the Union, enforcing civil rights for freed slaves. https://www.history.com/articles/reconstruction
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Granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S. and guaranteed equal protection under the laws. https://constitution.congress.gov/constitution/amendment-14/
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(1869-1877) - Republican -
Jim Crow laws enforced racial segregation and discrimination across the South, limiting African Americans' civil rights and opportunities for generations. https://jimcrowmuseum.ferris.edu/what.htm
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Prohibited the federal and state governments from denying a citizen the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude. https://constitutioncenter.org/the-constitution/amendments/amendment-xv#:~:text=Section%202-,Section%201,or%20previous%20condition%20of%20servitude.
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(1877-1881) - Republican -
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(1881) - Republican -
(1881-1885) - Republican -
The first significant law restricting immigration into the U.S., targeting Chinese laborers and setting a precedent for future immigration policies. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chinese-Exclusion-Act
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(1885-1889) - Democratic -
Provided social services and education to the urban poor, laying the groundwork for modern social work. https://study.com/learn/lesson/settlement-houses-movement-purpose-benefits.html#:~:text=Settlement%20houses%20were%20housing%20projects,educational%20programs%20for%20community%20members..
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(1889-1893) - Republican -
(1893-1897) - Democratic (second, non-consecutive term)
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(1897-1901) - Republican -
Marked the U.S.’s emergence as a global power with overseas territories like the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico. https://www.britannica.com/event/Spanish-American-War/Consequences-of-the-war
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(1901-1909) - Republican -
(1909-1913) - Republican -
(1913-1921) - Democratic -
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The U.S. entry helped end the war in favor of the Allies and established the nation as a major international actor. https://history.state.gov/milestones/1914-1920/wwi
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The Tulsa Race Massacre showed how unfairly Black Americans were treated and led to long-lasting harm and calls for justice. https://www.tulsahistory.org/exhibit/1921-tulsa-race-massacre/
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(1921-1923) - Republican -
(1923-1929) - Republican -
Proposed to guarantee equal legal rights for all American citizens regardless of sex, sparking ongoing debates over gender equality. https://now.org/the-equal-rights-amendment-and-why-its-important/
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A severe worldwide economic downturn led to massive unemployment and reforms in financial systems. https://www.britannica.com/event/Great-Depression
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(1929-1933) - Republican -
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Severe dust storms and drought devastated agriculture in the Great Plains, worsening the economic difficulties of the Great Depression. https://drought.unl.edu/dustbowl/#:~:text=Drought%20in%20the%20Dust%20Bowl%20Years&text=The%20resulting%20agricultural%20depression%20contributed,other%20physical%20and%20emotional%20hardships.
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(1933-1945) - Democratic -
A series of programs and reforms that were implemented to recover from the Great Depression and prevent future economic crises. https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/great-depression-and-world-war-ii-1929-1945/franklin-delano-roosevelt-and-the-new-deal/#:~:text=In%20the%20short%20term%2C%20New,social%20affairs%20of%20the%20nation.
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Mexican-American activists sought civil rights, educational reform, and cultural recognition, empowering the Chicano identity. The Chicano Movement achieved key reforms, including bilingual programs, better migrant worker conditions, more Chicano teachers, and increased Mexican-American elected officials. https://www.history.com/articles/chicano-movement
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U.S. involvement turned the tide against the Axis powers and positioned America as a global superpower in the postwar world. https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/new-global-power-after-world-war-ii-1945
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During WWII, over 120,000 Japanese Americans were forcibly relocated to internment camps, violating civil liberties. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internment_of_Japanese_Americans
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The Zoot Suit Riots showed that Mexican American teens were treated unfairly and targeted because of racism during World War II. https://www.history.com/articles/zoot-suit-riots
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(1945-1953) - Democratic -
A prolonged geopolitical standoff between the U.S. and the Soviet Union that shaped global alliances and led to multiple proxy wars and arms races. https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/cold-conflict
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An early Cold War conflict where the U.S. intervened to contain communism, ultimately resulting in the continued division of Korea. https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/postwarera/1950s-america/a/the-korean-war
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(1953-1961) - Republican -
A long and controversial conflict that fueled domestic protest and deeply influenced American foreign and military policy. https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/postwarera/1960s-america/a/the-vietnam-war#:~:text=The%20war%20in%20Vietnam%20had,impose%20constraints%20on%20presidential%20power.
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A pivotal protest in the Civil Rights Movement that led to the desegregation of buses and elevated Martin Luther King Jr. to national prominence. https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/montgomery-bus-boycott
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(1961-1963) - Democratic -
(1963-1969) - Democratic -
Native American activists demanded self-determination and rights, leading to policy changes and increased awareness of Indigenous issues. The Red Power Movement ended the federal policy of termination. https://libguides.uml.edu/c.php?g=945022&p=6820187
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(1969-1974) - Republican -
Catalyzed the LGBTQ+ rights movement, leading to increased activism and the fight for equal rights. https://www.american.edu/sis/news/20190618-the-legacy-of-the-stonewall-riots.cfm
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Legalized abortion nationwide under the right to privacy, transforming reproductive rights and sparking lasting legal and political battles. https://reproductiverights.org/roe-v-wade/#:~:text=The%20Roe%20v.,Wade%20Ruling%2C%201973&text=In%20its%201973%20decision%20Roe,whether%20to%20continue%20a%20pregnancy.
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(1974-1977) - Republican -
(1977-1981) - Democratic -
(1981-1989) - Republican -
Advocated for LGBTQ+ rights, highlighting issues like AIDS awareness and anti-discrimination policies. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_National_March_on_Washington_for_Lesbian_and_Gay_Rights#:~:text=Passage%20of%20the%20Congressional%20lesbian,%2C%20research%2C%20and%20patient%20care.
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(1989-1993) - Republican -
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(1993-2001) - Democratic -
Coordinated terrorist attacks by al-Qaeda on U.S. soil that killed nearly 3,000 people and fundamentally reshaped U.S. foreign and domestic policy. https://www.fbi.gov/history/famous-cases/911-investigation#:~:text=History-,9%2F11%20Investigation,U.S.%20and%20around%20the%20globe.
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(2001-2009) - Republican -
The Great Recession caused massive job losses, home foreclosures, and financial hardship, leading to major changes in U.S. economic policy and banking regulations. https://www.federalreservehistory.org/essays/great-recession-and-its-aftermath
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(2009-2017) - Democratic -
(2017-2021) - Republican -
(2021-2025) -
Supporters of President Trump stormed the Capitol to overturn election results.
https://www.britannica.com/event/Capitol-riot-of-January-6-2021