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Napoleon won major victories in the Battles of Ulm, Austerlitz, Jena, Auerstädt, and Friedland. The Napoleonic Wars involved an alliance between Russia, Austria, Sweden, and Prussia. -
Isaac Newton publishes Principia Mathematica, where he lays out his three laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation, forever changing physics. -
John Locke finishes Two Treatises of Government, where he argues that people have natural rights and rulers only have power if they actually serve the public. His ideas about political freedom later inspire the American and French Revolutions. -
Voltaire publishes Lettres philosophiques, taking direct shots at the established religious and political systems. His sharp criticism causes an uproar among authorities, and the backlash is so intense that he’s forced to flee Paris to avoid trouble. -
Jean-Jacques Rousseau publishes The Social Contract in France, saying society shouldn’t just follow laws from kings or the church. Instead, he argues that laws should only count if the people actually agree to them. -
On July 4, 1776, the Continental Congress approves the Declaration of Independence, mostly written by Thomas Jefferson. It declares the 13 colonies are done with Britain, listing King George III’s wrongs and pushing Enlightenment ideas like rights, freedom, and government by the people. -
Charles-Alexandre de Calonne, France’s finance guy, gets a bunch of nobles and rich people together to talk about the country being broke. He’s like, “Hey, maybe the rich should pay taxes?” but they’re totally not having it. Instead, they’re like, “Let’s just call the Estates-General,” which hasn’t met in forever—since 1614! -
In 1788, people were super unhappy, so Louis XVI had no choice but to give in and agree to call the Estates-General. He also loosened press restrictions, and soon, pamphlets were everywhere, arguing for a total revamp of the government. -
The fight over voting in the Estates-General pushes deputies of the Third Estate to break off and call themselves the National Assembly. Some clergy join them, and they threaten to move forward without the other two estates. -
The oath was taken in the Royal Tennis Court in Versailles and was a defining moment in the French Revolution. -
King Louis XVI finally gives in and tells the other two estates to join the assembly, which now officially calls itself the National Constituent Assembly. But plot twist—he secretly starts gathering troops because he’s planning to break it all up. -
The revolutionaries stormed the Bastille, a prison in Paris that symbolized the monarchy's abuse of power. -
The National Constituent Assembly introduces the Declaration of the Rights of Man, inspired by Enlightenment ideas. But Louis XVI refuses to approve it, so angry Parisians march to Versailles and drag the royal family back to Paris. -
The march was sparked by women in Paris markets who were angry about the high cost of bread. The marchers demanded that King Louis XVI address their grievances. -
The Legislative Assembly was established in 1791 during the French Revolution. The assembly favored war with neighboring countries and spreading the ideals of the Revolution. -
France straight-up declares war on Austria, kicking off a seven-year-long mess called the French Revolutionary Wars, where France ends up fighting a bunch of European countries. -
On September 21, 1792, the National Convention abolished the monarchy in France and declared the country a republic. This event took place during the French Revolution. -
Louis XVI was convicted of treason for refusing to give up his power to the revolutionary government. He was taken in a carriage from his prison to the execution site, which took over an hour. The executioner beheaded Louis XVI with the guillotine. -
The Reign of Terror was a violent period during the French Revolution when many people were executed for opposing the revolution. -
Robespierre gets taken down in the National Convention and is executed the next day, officially ending the Reign of Terror. Not long after, the National Convention is shut down, and a new government takes over with a five-person Directory and a two-house legislature. -
France’s huge army won big at Fleurus in 1794, but people were done with the Reign of Terror. When Robespierre kept the executions going, he was arrested and guillotined. More moderate leaders took over and wrote a new constitution. -
Napoleon led an invasion of Egypt to protect French trade interests. -
In 1800, Napoleon crushed it at the Battle of Marengo, securing France’s win in the War of the Second Coalition. -
In December 1804, Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of the French. -
In 1814, Napoleon got defeated and had to give up power after France was invaded by his enemies. -
These laws were enacted by Nazi Germany, legalizing racial discrimination against Jews and other minorities, laying the groundwork for the Holocaust. -
This event marked the beginning of World War ll, as Nazi Germany invaded Poland, leading Britain and France to declare war on Germany. -
High-ranking Nazi officials met to plan the "Final Solution," the systematic genocide of Jews, leading to the widespread extermination in concentration camps. -
A pivotal turning point in WWll, where Soviet forces defeated the Nazis, marking the beginning of Germany's retreat on the Eastern Front. -
As Allied forces advanced into Germany, they liberated numerous concentration camps, revealing the full extent of the Holocaust atrocities.
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