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monarchy abolished and communist regime started. USSR created
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President in exile Edvard Benes made an agreement with Stalin, felt betrayed by the other Allies since the Munich Conference. Communist leader Gottwald accepted Benes as the president. Coalition government was created, but with communists in key positions.
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Agreements to open a second front in France, USSR to join war against Japan. Agreed to withdraw from Iran 6 months after the end of the war and guarantee its economic reconstruction.
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44 countries met in New Hampshire to discuss post-war finances. They decided that to prevent war, economic stability must be preserved. The IMF (international monetary fund) and the IBRD (international bank for reconstruction and development- later the World Bank) was created to fund reconstruction and give loans and grants to war-torn countries.
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Created by Churchill and Stalin at the Tolstoy conference in Moscow. Set out how the spheres of influence in liberated Europe would be set up, e.g. Greece- Britain/US 90%, Romania- USSR 90%, Bulgaria- USSR 75%, Hungary/Yugoslavia- 50% each
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USSR formally recognised the communist Committee for National Liberation as the provisional government. Against the wishes of the Allies, who supported the government-in-exile in London. The US and UK did not protest heavily as they needed to maintain the Alliance.
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Ultra right wing Arrow Cross party had taken over in september 1944. After liberation, the communist party was weak and unpopular, so had to cooperate with socialist and smallholders parties. Stalin removed anything that could be considered reparations, but was unsure whether to integrate Hungary into the Soviet bloc
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Stalin wanted Germany to remain weak with extreme reparations. Roosevelt wanted to develop liberal democracy in Europe and create the UN. Germany/Berlin divided into 4 occupation zones. USSR gained land from Poland according to the Curzon line, while Poland expanded westwards. Declaration on Liberated Europe was signed, Roosevelt believed that Stalin would hold to it.
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Secret meeting between US, UK and German officials in Bern to discuss a German surrender. USSR purposefully excluded, seen by Stalin as proof of how the US and UK were untrustworthy.
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Stalin did not trust or respect Truman or Atlee, and believed that the US wanted to dominate western Europe. Truman attempted to use the atomic bomb to ensure Stalin's cooperation. Decisions: demilitarisation, democratisation, denazification, decentralisation. Truman wanted to create more global trade, limit Soviet expansion and ensure future US influence. Atlee wanted to focus on domestic policy, and ensure the US support of western Europe.
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Labour Party won a landslide victory. Stalin thought Attlee was weak, Attlee wanted to focus on Britain and secure the special relationship and was unwilling to fight with Stalin. Foreign minister Ernest Bevin was very anti-communist.
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"Little Boy" and "Fat Man" bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6th and 9th Aug. Developed by the Manhattan Project at Alamogordo, New Mexico. USSR became determined to develop their own nuclear program, US had a monopoly until 1949. First test on 16 July, with a yield of 22 kilotons, just 1 day before start of Potsdam Conf.
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Hiroshima Nagasaki- 6th and 9th of August. Japan surrenders, ending the war in the Pacific.
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Oversaw the occupation and reconstruction of Japan.
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Based in NYC, objective was to preserve world peace. 51 initial members (mix of commonwealth and capitalist Europe, Asia and Middle East); only Poland USSR given SC seats. Communist China was not allowed to take China's permanent seat. General Assembly had 193 seats.
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After the coalition 'Fatherland Front' took power at the end of the war, the monarchy was abolished by public vote and the communists eventually took over, declaring a people's republic under Dimitrov
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George Kennan- US diplomat in Moscow. He believed that communism was an uncompromising ideological threat, with no chance of US-USSR cooperation. He advised Truman that the US must be prepared to use force, as Soviet policy was aggressive and expansionist
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After the UK and US forces withdrew from Iran, the USSR refused on the grounds that the UK/US wanted to undermine the southern Soviet border. The US protested at the UNSC and accused the USSR of interfering, but the USSR eventually obtained oil concessions to match the US and UK.
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Fulton, Missouri. Stalin saw this as proof that the US and UK were working together to carry out an ideological assault against the USSR. Many Americans thought it was too aggressive, although Churchill was not Prime Minister any more and did not represent the UK.
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Nikolai Novikov argued that the US were economic imperialists with a wish for global dominance. Mainly a response to the Long telegram.
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After communists staged a coup and took over the National Democratic Front in march 1945, King Michael I was eventually forced to abdicate, and a communist republic under Groza was established.
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Written by George Kennan, although he denied it. Introduced the idea of containing communism (although after the TD)
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Communist government imposed against the wishes of the UK and US, who believed that Stalin was going back on his word and betraying their trust
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US under secreatary of state. Found that the weak European economies would in turn damage the US. Believed that US aid was needed to help recovery.
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British and US zones merged into Bizonia. The British were struggling to support their zone, particularly considering the influx of immigrants from the East and their population of 22.5 million people. They wanted to avoid French or Soviet influence over the industrial Ruhr region- Stalin was demanding joint control, De Gaulle wanted an international control with French influence.
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Called by the UK and France to discuss the Marshall Plan. A Soviet delegation under Molotov attended initially, but walked out after declaring it an attempt of 'economic imperialism' by the US. Molotov accused the West of dividing Europe into 2 camps. Soviet spies in London had access to diplomatic reports: West never intended to give it to the East, just a gesture. 16 countries took part in the final Plan. Eastern European governments (e.g. Czechoslovakia) were threatened into rejecting it.
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Initially began as a way to support Greek royalists against communist forces (Britain could no longer intervene). Aimed to protect democracy (aid the "free peoples of the world"), stop the expansion of the USSR and develop their own world power. Demonization of the USSR began, to justify the Doctrine and a shift away from isolationism.
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Speech at Harvard. $13.5 billion had been given by 1952 to 16 countries in the form of money, goods and equipment (20% loans, 80% grants). Recipients had to import US goods, share any economic information. Aim to prevent communist regimes gaining popularity, develop markets enough for the US to trade with. UK- 24%, France- 21%, West Germany and Italy- 11% each. Ended in 1951 (2 years early) due to Korean war, Republican Congress.
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Reaction to the Marshall Plan and so called dollar imperialism. Aimed to unite communist groups across Europe and coordinate their action under Soviet leadership. Inspired by the Zhdanov doctrine, where he said the US wanted to create an anti-Soviet empire etc.
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Set up under General Curtis LeMay to have 24hr readiness to nuclear threats- deploying and managing nuclear forces. By 1957, it adapted into an all-jet force focused on strategic bombers.
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Stalin and Tito did not get on: Tito did not want to take orders from Moscow. Stalin had stopped Tito sending aid to Greek communists and forming a federation with the southern states
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British, French, US and Benelux (Belgian, Dutch, Luxembourg) officials met in London, agreed to introduce a new currency to create economic stability. French zone merged with Bizonia and a new currency (the Deutsche Mark) was created. This divided Germany into two economic blocs, and had been done without consulting the USSR or the ACC. They planned to create a West German state that was relatively independent, with a formal constitution (7th June).
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Had been divided into Soviet and US zones along the 38th parallel after the end of Japanese occupation. The USA orchestrated the creation of the Republic of Korea under Syngman Rhee (Aug) and the USSR created the Democratic People's Republic of Korea under Kim Il Sung (Sep). Both Rhee and Kim wanted to unite Korea under their own form of governance. Rhee tried to convince Truman to help him invade the North. Kim began guerilla attacks on the South.
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First elections of the Italian republic took place in April 1948. The US feared socialists/communists taking power (were fairly popular) so launched anti-communist campaign, funded a centrist coalition led by the CDP and threatened sanctions if communists were elected. Alcide de Gasperi was elected as PM.
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USSR closed all ground links between West Berlin and West Germany to try and force the Allies out of Berlin. The Allies began to airlift supplies from the 24th June (Operation 'Vittles' by USA) and implemented a counter-blockade. 2k tons of supplies a day were delivered, e.g. coal, food, chocolate for children. Easter Sunday 1949, 13k tons of supplies. Called off due to failure. Heightened tensions, showed how trust had disintegrated. Stalin seen as unpredictable, cruel, Allies as compromising.
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Communists under Gottwald seize power after there was a crisis over Czechoslovakia trying to enter the Marshall Plan. Communists had previously won 38% of the vote in may 1946 but remained part of the National Front coalition. Benes was forced to capitulate. This encouraged Congress to approve the ERP, proof that the USSR was an aggressive threat.
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Economic advisor Joseph Dodge and finance minister Hayato Ikeda worked to create a directive with plans for economic reconstruction. This included: regulation of trade and foreign exchange, stricter lending criteria, price freezes, efficient taxation. Had a target of 157 million yen. Japan joined the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade in 1955 and was not allowed to trade with communist China.
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In 1949, the Vietnamese emperor-in-exile Bao Dai returned to power. Popular communist nationalist Ho Chi Minh declared the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, launching the war. SE Asia was seen as vulnerable to communism, important for containment and as a market for Japanese goods. France was suffering heavy casualties (e.g. 1952: 90,000) and by 1954 the US was paying 75%. Gen Ridgway convinced E the war was futile, conference called in Apr 54 when the French were near defeat by the Viet Minh.
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Set up in response to the Marshall Plan to provide economic aid to the satellite states: in reality it was used to coordinate the economies of the eastern bloc. Strived for economic self-sufficiency within the bloc. Countries were encouraged to specialize in one area of industry.
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US commitment to the defense of Europe was uncertain. US wanted Europe to contribute more, reduce dependency. NATO was created with 12 initial members as a primarily political organization, although article 5 stated that an attack against one was an attack against all. USSR perceived this as aggressive, an attempt to dominate Europe.
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In elections in August, KPD won only 5.7% of the vote, Konrad Adenauer (CDU) became the Chancellor of the FRG. An occupation statute was set up, with the Western Allies having final decisions on foreign policy and security. Stalin reluctantly created the GDR (East Germany) in October with a 'make-believe' constitution that disguised a one party dictatorship under Wilhelm Piek.
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Test a copy of the USA's 'fat man' bomb. Yield of 22 kilotons
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This ended the USA's nuclear monopoly: the USSR was able to be more forceful when dealing with Korea etc. Triggered the start of the arms race. The USA feared that they were losing the fight against communism and felt that they had to be more aggressive, particularly in defense of democratic allies e.g. South Korea. Begin to develop a hydrogen bomb to take back nuclear dominance.
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Mao Zedong's communist party wins the civil war against Jiang Jieshi and the nationalists. Jiang flees to Taiwan and asks for support from the USA. In the China White Paper (July 1949) the USA agreed to secretly support Jiang and the KMT to undermine Mao and weaken the Sino-Soviet alliance, but gave no direct military support.
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Stalin had previously told Kim not to invade, but gave his approval in March 1950. Kim visited Moscow, then Beijing, to get the support of Stalin and Mao. USSR was in a stronger position after Mao's victory, atomic bomb. Stalin gave 1600 pieces of artillery, 258 T-34 tanks and 178 military aircraft to Kim. He did not send troops to avoid direct confrontation with the USA, but Soviet pilots and planes bombed the US/UN/South Korean forces.
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Secretary of State Dean G. Acheson discussed a 'defensive perimeter' in the Pacific, which included Japan, the Philippines etc. South Korea was not included in this, leading Kim to believe that the USA would not intervene to protect them against a communist invasion
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Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance: established a cooperative relationship between the two communist nations. Emphasized mutual support, collective security
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Triggered by the end of US nuclear monopoly and the loss of China. Policy review that advised Truman to build up political, economic and military power in the world, as a globalized Cold War was now inevitable.
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Kim invaded, pushed southern forces to Pusan. UN force lands at Inchon in Sep and push Kim's forces back over the 38th parallel to the Yalu river. Mao sends 300,000 troops in Oct. MacArthur asked to use nuclear air strikes on China, Truman dismissed him in April. Stalemate from June 51 to July 53, eventually signed an Armistice in Panmunjom. Rhee refused to sign a peace treaty but a demilitarized zone was created. Negotiations dragged due to mistrust, POW debates.
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US had requested a meeting of the UNSC and used the USSR's absence (boycotting) to pass a resolution requiring an immediate ceasefire. A UN force led by MacArthur (mainly US troops) landed at Inchon and helped the South Korean forces. The UNSC condemned China for intervening, called it an aggressor. 29 countries sent military or medical aid to South Korea. This showed that the UNSC could be effective, but that the US dominated it, could use it to legitimize its intervention.
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European Coal and Steel community. European industry grew by 35% between 1948-52. Western Europe began to form a single market. Economic growth in the West, with income up 20% by the 1970s.
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Aus, NZ, US. Nonbinding. NZ partially suspended in 1986 for forbidding nuclear carrying ships in its waters but partial military cooperation resumed in 2007. Aus was disappointed in US lack of support during Konfrontasi against Indonesia and Malaysia in the 60s. Only used during War on Terror in 2001.
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Ethel and Julius Rosenberg were tried and sentenced to death for spying for the USSR. Judge refused to intervene else be accused of being a communist: huge atmosphere of fear.
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Between Japan, the US, UK and France. Japanese PM Shigeru Yoshida knew that Japan was vital in the US policy of containment in the Far East, saw an opportunity to take back more control. Japan was given full sovereignty (on the condition of renouncing territorial claims) with no war guilt, reparations or economic/military restrictions. The US was given unrestricted access to military bases, complete control of Okinawa and the right to intervene in Japanese politics if necessary.
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Aug 1952. Coined by Frenchman Alfred Sauvy in L'Observateur. Argued that cold war conflict ignored the real shift: arrival of Africa, Asia S America on the world stage after decolonisation.
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National Police Reserve: 75,000 strong
NSA: 110,000 ground troops, 7600 maritime troops
John Foster Dulles (US diplomat) wanted Japan to build up ground forces. By July 1954, they had 140,000 Self Defense Forces that had been given $240 million from the US. -
First test "Ivy Mike" in Enewetak Atoll in the Pacific. Explosion was equivalent to over 10 megatons of TNT and 1500 times more powerful than Hiroshima bomb.
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Khruschev visits China in May 1953 and agrees to provide them with defence technology. Strengthening of Sino-Soviet alliance
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Ran alongside Nixon on a platform of McCarthyism. Heavily criticized Truman and the Democrats for being 'soft' on communism, promised he would take a tougher, more aggressive stance. E and J F Dulles set out 'brinkmanship': threatened to use nuclear weapons, but drew back from the brink. E wanted to expand nuclear program but cut spending on conventional forces (e.g. H-Bomb 1 Nov 52). 'Roll-back' policy to take a tougher line (in practice not used effectively).
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This sped up the peace negotiations in Korea, as Stalin had been pushing Kim to be demanding, not give in to the US. Power sharing between Khrushchev, Molotov, Malenkov, Beria and Bulganin, but Khrushchev became Premier in 1958.
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E. German economy had been reorganised like the USSR (1951- 5 year plan). By 1952 they had doubled iron, steel and chemical production, but Ulbricht raised production targets by 10%, arrested opposition leaders and threatened collectivisation of farms. East Germans were fleeing to the FRG. Ulbricht was summoned to Moscow on June 2 and told to be more gradual, moderate. 16 June: strikes and riots (100K) calling for more freedoms. 17: Sov troops moved in, killed 125 people in suppressing riots.
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Armistice is signed to end the war, but Rhee refuses to sign a peace treaty. Korea remains divided along 38th parallel (return to status quo).
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After PM Mohammad Mossadegh nationalised oil industry in March 1951 (previously Anglo-Iranian Oil Company), CIA and MI5 began 'Operation Ajax' to undermine the govt through riots, libel, bribery. Stirred up political tension by threatening religious leaders whilst posing as communists. 300 people died in riots, Mossadegh was overthrown and sentenced to 3 years in prison. The Shah assumed brutal dictatorship, relying on UK-US aid and arms, signed over 40% of oil fields to US companies.
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Became SCP secretary in Sept 1953 after seeing off rivals, and became Soviet Premier in 1958. His priorities were internal economic develpoment, defusing international tension through peaceful coexistence and retaining a tight grip over eastern europe as the leaders of the communist world. He also instituted a shift towards nuclear diplomacy over conventional forces.
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Oct 1953. Defined Eisenhower's national security policy, based on reducing conventional forces and building up nuclear capabilities. Highlighted need for capability to inflict "massive retaliatory damage". Policy of brinkmanship began: threatening use of nuclear weapons to deter the other side. Increasing funds were devoted to nuclear development.
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Khrushchev sends letter to London, Paris and DC offering to join NATO in return for a neutral, united Germany, but is rejected. Also proposes a Pan-European organisation to exclude the USA.
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After investigating the film industry, Democrats, the State Department and universities, McCarthy was finally discredited after accusing prominent army generals of communism. In December, the Senate voted him guilty of bringing them into disrepute.
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Aimed to end the Indochina war. Created 2 zones along the 17th parallel, with the US-French in the South and nationalists in the North. Not intended to be permanent, and national elections were set for 2 years time. Ngo Dinh Diem became the first president of south Vietnam in 1955, refused to sign any peace agreements.
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JF Dulles brokered SEATO in Sept 1954 to provide collective defence in SE Asia. Thai, Pak, Phi, NZ, Aus, UK, US, Fr- few common borders, important states left out. Legitimised US influence in Asia was largely ineffective: dissolved in June 1977
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US feared the spread of communism across S. America (domino theory) and evoked the Monroe Doctrine (S. America was in the US sphere of influence). Jacobo Arbenz had led agrarian nationalist reforms, affecting US businesses e.g. United Fruit Company. Operation PBSUCCESS spread propaganda and supported rebel leader Carlos Castillo Armas, who was installed as president after Arbenz's resignation in June 1954. Political repression followed.
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Weakened France economically and politically: hypocritical contradiction between anti-communism and colonial repression. Strained unity of the west and highlighted the end of European imperial dominance. Algeria became driver of African unity, independence and non-alignment under Houari Boumediene (from 1965) and a hub for anti-colonial and pan-african activists. Castro visited Algiers 1972, gave a speech on May 16 highlighting symmetry in struggle against imperialism and poverty.
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Eisenhower had not intervened in the GDR crisis, tried to prolong the unrest to strengthen support for Adenauer (won sept 53 elections by a larger margin than previously). Discussed the reunification of Germany, but they found that it was ultimately futile. Beria was arrested and executed (had supported this proposal). Each side proposed mutually unacceptable plans.
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Retested lithium deuteride-based H-bomb at Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands. Expected a yield of 5 megatons, but it was actually 15 megatons. Necessitated evacuation of 230 people
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Sep. K wanted to slow down the arms race to promote internal economic development. Discussed nuclear disarmament, but no verdict reached. Eisenhower proposed 'Open Skies', allowing aerial reconaissance but K rejected this. Eisenhower proposed German reunification with free elections, but K would only accept this if Germany was demilitarised and neutral. Refused to discuss eastern bloc. Agreed on principle of free elections, no real action taken. Symbolic moment of dialogue, but no real outcomes.
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Stated that the FRG would consider the recognition of the GDR as an independent state by other nations as an unfriendly act and would end diplomatic relations with the state in question.
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Founded as METO (Baghdad Pact) by UK, Iraq, Türkiye, Persia (Iran) and Pak to counter Soviet expansion into vital oil nations. Iraq withdrew in March 59 after their anti-Sov monarchy was overthrown, after which the US became an associate member. Iran withdrew after the fall of the Shah in 1979, dissolved in march 79. Allowed for some economic development e.g. Turkey-Persia rail, Turkey-Pakistan phone line, but gave no mil support to Pak when requested against India in 65. No Arab members
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China annex minor islands 1954-55. Sino-American Mutual Defence Treaty signed on 2 Dec 1954. US place the 7th fleet in the Taiwan Strait in 1958.
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29 countries, representing 1/2 of global population met in Indonesia. Led by Nasser, Tito, Nehru and Chou En-Lai. Argued that neutral 3rd world could and should shape IR, break away from superpower dominance. Called for equality of races and nations, supported anti-colonialism and fights for freedom and self-determination e.g. Algeria. Non-Aligned movement formally established in Sep 61 in Belgrade. Called for equitable distribution of wealth.
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Joined the Council of Europe in Nov 1949 (right to establish consulates abroad and have reps in the OEEC). May 1952: statute of occupation abolished, W German sovereignty recognised. Adenauer renounced nuclear weapons but lobbied for rearmament. 9 May: admitted to NATO. USSR immediately recognised the sovereignty of GDR.
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7 satellite states (Hungary, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, GDR, Romania, Albania) USSR. Legitimised influence and military presence in E Eur, allowed the USSR to take control of their armies and defence programs. Article 4= collective defence. More propaganda than an effective military alliance, with only Polish GDR forces strong enough. Only joint operation was Prague Spring (80K troops from Pol, Hun, Bul). All commanders in chief were Soviet officers. Political committee in Moscow.
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Occupying powers reached agreement to restore Austrian sovereignty, in return for their neutrality, not joining NATO. Proved intention of peaceful coexistence and cooperation, removed source of potential conflict. Resumed summit diplomacy. Western powers removed forces from FRG.
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See timeline. US troops involved 1965-73.
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Tested first on 12 Aug 1953, yield of 400 kiltons but this was not a true multi-stage bomb. First true H-bomb tested 22 Nov 1955 with a 1.6 megaton yield
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After Nasser nationalised Suez Canal in July 1956, UK, Fr and Israel launched military intervention in Oct to regain control. Collapsed under US and Soviet pressure, revealing their dependence. Increased both US and Sov presence in Middle East, exposed decline of Euro imperialism. Convinced de Gaulle that France must regain strategic autonomy from US.
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July 1956. High altitude reconnaissance aircraft capable of flying over 70,000 feet, initially beyond radar range
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Khruschev criticised Stalin's leadership, cult of personality and oppressive regime at the 20th congress of the Communist Party. Satellite states began to hope for more freedom and autonomy. Initiated de-stalinization, although K was not prepared to relax control over the East. Marked abandonement of M-L view that ideological war was inevitable. Aimed to focus on internal progress, not war and defuse global tension. Needed USSR to remain first among communists. Renamed Stalingrad as Volgograd
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K and Bulganin led Soviet delegation, although it was not counted as an official state visit. Minor protest from emigres, Catholic Church. Greater cultural, scientific and trade links across Iron Curtain- more pragmatic British approach to USSR, Eden wanted to keep Britain strong, show tech/industrial power. 17 March: UK ambassador Sir William Hayter gave an address on Soviet TV.
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Poznan workers struck against wage cuts, religious repression, poor conditions on 28 June, beginning an anti-communist armed uprising. 74 killed. Oct: Gomulka (discredited in 1951 for opposing Soviet interference) was elected as first secretary of PCP. Khrushchev agreed to this appointment as long as Poland remained in the Warsaw Pact. Gomulka was supported by China and most Poles- saw him as protecting Polish autonomy. Showed K would allow some independence if leaders were trustworthy.
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Oppressive Rakosi forced to resign by K and Mikoyan. 22 Oct: students demonstrated in Budapest, 16 demands e.g. greater freedoms, appointment of Imre Nagy as prime minister. Nagy seen as reformer, nationalist. Joined by workers. 24: Nagy appointed, promised Mikoyan he would calm the revolt, underestimated mood. 28: pressure from China, K withdraws troops. Radio Free Europe had promised that the west would send aid- encouraged rebels to undermine communism but would not risk war.
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1 Nov: Nagy announces withdrawal from WP and future neutrality. 3 Nov: Budapest surrounded by 15 RA divisions, 4K tanks. Rising crushed, hardline Janos Kadar installed as leader. 4K killed, 200K fled to exile. West not prepared to intervene, E. Eur firmly under Soviet control. Proved need for socio-political reform in E. Eur to prevent further risings.
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Khrushchev makes a speech in front of western diplomats at the Polish embassy in Moscow proclaiming that "we are on the right side of history, we will bury you". Diplomats walked out in protest, international outrage.
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Oct 1957. Most E. Eur countries, except Poland and Yugoslavia, agreed that the USSR was the "first and mightiest" of the socialist countries.
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Aimed to address and improve Anglo-American relations. Discussed the defense of Europe and the Middle East. US agree to station IRBMs in Britain, and reach the same deal with NATO in Dec
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European Economic Community: early EU. Created a single European trading bloc/market.
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Commitment to defending Middle East against communism. Backdrop of post-Suez power vacuum with decline of British influence. Set precedent for future regional involvement. Aimed to stabilise pro-west govts and secure access to oil.
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USSR launched first ever successful ICBM, R-7 Semyorka that could travel up to 8,000km.
Eisenhower believed the USSR were catching up to nuclear capabilities, commissioned the Gaither Report in Nov, which found there was a 100-30 ICBM lead for the USSR, but U2 evidence suggested otherwise and by 1959 only 10 ICBMs had been deployed. -
USSR launch first ever satellite
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Laika the dog launched in a 10-day orbit in Sputnik II. USSR clearly winning the space race, generating fear of space-launched missiles, surveillance etc.
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First US rocket crashed on take off from Cape Canaveral. Nicknamed 'Flopnik'. Soviet space program led by Sergei P Korolev way ahead.
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Operation Blue Bat: 14K US marines deployed to support pro-west Lebanese govt against Egyptian and Syrian backed rebels (UAR) who favored allying with Arab nationalists e.g. Nasser. Set precedent for future involvement in the middle east.
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Set up by Eisenhower for space development. Congress authorise a $1 billion budget.
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Project Green Grass. Atomic bomb successfully tested in Australia in 1952 under Operation Hurricane. H-Bomb tested 1958. ICBM programme cancelled in 1958 due to the Mutual Defence Agreement: USA agree to share nuclear materials and tech. Trident SLBMs purchased from USA in 1980
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Nagy had hoped that international pressure would force the Soviets not to intervene to prevent Hungary leaving the WP, but west was focused on Suez crisis. Executed with fellow Hungarian leaders in Moscow. Kadar crushed remaining resistance, arresting 35K activists and executing 300. Began a program of political education in Hungarian Army to ensure loyalty. K increased Soviet divisions in Hun from 2-4, made Hun govt pay for them.
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K accused the Allies of violating the Potsdam agreement by allowing FRG to rearm. Said they should withdraw from West Berlin within 6 months, and it would become a free, demilitarised city, or else he would cut them off. Called West Berlin a "malignant tumour". Officially rejected by western power on 31 Dec, but they attempted to lessen confrontation with a series of visits etc. Alarmed Adenauer and the FRG, feared the west giving in.
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Sept. K toured the US for 13 days First Soviet visit to the US. Aimed to resolve Berlin issue, discussed nuclear disarmament and agreed on aim of slowing down arms race. Chinese opposition to peaceful coexistence strained Sino-Soviet relations, China announced it would not follow nuclear weapons prohibitions, had set up a nuclear program in 1955.
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Oct 1959, launched by USSR
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Batista's regime collapses after success of Castro's guerilla campaign. Castro becomes PM. US had shown little significant support for Batista, with Ei ordering an arms embargo but Castro wanted to reduce US economic and political influence.
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US VP Nixon opened the US National Exhibition in Moscow, showing off US technological advancements like colour television. Warm exchanges between K and Nixon, marked a good point in relations.
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Held in Algiers July 21-Aug 1. Organised by Org of African Unity, represented independence, non-alignment and cultural diversity.
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1958: WP would declare non-aggression towards NATO if NATO did the same.
1960: WP states would stop nuclear tests if NATO did the same -
Aimed to reduce reliance on US after Suez. Began building up "force de frappe" from 1960. Promoted a "Europe of Nations" as a counter to superpowers, reduce US influence in Europe.
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May 1959: agragarian reforms, state seizes US-owned properties
Feb 1960: Mikoyan (deputy Premier) visits Cuba, arranges $100m credits
Apr 1960: after oil companies refuse to refine crude oil from USSR, Castro nationalises them
Oct 1960: Castro seizes $1bn in US assets in Cuba after US impose economic sanctions, reducing import of Cuban sugar by 95% -
Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries: formed by Iran, Iraq, Venezuela, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia. Primary purpose was to coordinate and unify oil policies to stabilise the oil market.
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Attempt to assess missile deficit.1 May: FG Powers' U2 plane shot down over Sverdlovsk. Powers was captured, put on trial and sentenced to 10 years in prison for espionage. US tried to claim it was a weather plane, but were forced to admit truth after USSR presented evidence. Eisenhower refused to apologise, although agreed to stop flights, and K stormed out of the summit. Significant setback in relations. Discovered that USSR was far behind in terms of nuclear capability.
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June 1961. Kn refused to compromise on status of Berlin. No agreement reached, lack of respect/good relations between the two leaders. Kn asked Congress to call up army reservists and naval ships. On 25 July, he called for a build up of NATO forces.
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Thor missiles in UK 1958. Jupiter missiles placed in Italy in June and Turkey in Nov 1961. By Nov 1961, there were over 100 nuclear missiles within range of Moscow.
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Took office Jan 1961. Reaffirmed Truman Doctrine in his inauguration speech, promising that the US would support the survival of liberty and freedom. Increased defense budget from $45-50 billion. K believed he was young, vulnerable and easy to manipulate.
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Planned under Ei but accepted by Kennedy. 1500 Cuban anti-Castro exiles were trained by the CIA, planned to land in Cuba and incite a revolt to remove Castro. Ended in failure: humiliation for Kn, strengthened Soviet-Cuban relations, consolidates Castro's domestic power. 30 Nov 1961: Kn authorises Op Mongoose to covertly destabilise the regime and remove Castro.
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Yuri Gagarin becomes the first man in space. 108 mins long, first ever manned spaceflight. On 5 May, American Alan Shepard followed suit with a 15 min flight in Freedom 7 as part of Project Mercury. On 25 May, Kennedy announces that the US would be the first to put a man on the moon. On 16 June 1953, Valentina Tereshkova became the first woman in space.
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Due to brain drain, e.g. 1953: 300,000 east Germans left, need to stand up to the West. Ulbricht's idea, K gave in eventually due to failure of ultimatum, viewed Kn as weak since Bay of Pigs, Sino Soviet pressure, failure of demarcation line to resolve emigration crisis. Construction began with barbed wire fences to physically seal off West Berlin. Resolved economic crisis in GDR and prevented armed/nuclear confrontation over Berlin. 50 Germans died 1961-2 trying to escape.
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22-28 Oct. US diplomat stopped by GDR guards, in an attempt to discourage movement of diplomats. US troops and tanks moved to the checkpoint to test GDR reaction. K ordered military to respond with equal force as US. NATO forces put on high alert. Kn asked K to make the first move to withdraw, and the troops pulled back. Wall was built higher and equipped with defense tools.
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Largest ever nuclear explosion. H-Bomb with 57 megaton yield. Destroyed everything within a 35km radius. Considered impractical- very big, had to be dropped by plane. After 1961, focused shifted towards efficient, strategic missile systems.
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Discoverer programme, launched Aug 1960, was developing military intelligence through low polar orbit satellites. Part of the CIA-Air Force Corona Project, photographed the entire surface of the Earth in 24hrs. By 1962, NASA had launched 63 missions, compared to only 15 from the USSR
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Op Quick Kick: mil maneuvers in Caribbean Mar 62
Op Anadyr:14K troops, bombers, fighter plans and missiles to Cuba
14 Oct: U2 plane captures R12 missile site at San Cristobal
16: Kn assembles Excom, set a naval blockade (quarantine), mil on DEFCON2
17: UNSC meet, US rep Stevenson condemn USSR Cuba
24: Soviet ships turn around
26: Cuba shot down U2 plane, 1st telegram
27: 2nd telegram: Kn ignores 2nd, agrees 1st, agree to remove Turkish missiles secretly
8: K agrees- undermines domestic image -
Largely symbolic, usage is unknown.
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Made an infamous speech at the Berlin Wall ("ich bin ein Berliner"), condemning the division and expressing solidarity with West Berlin. The Wall was a propaganda victory for the west, became a physical symbol of the failures and oppressive nature of communism. Despite this, the west did not react that strongly, accepted the solution to tension.
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Proposed by K. Banned tests in space, underwater and in the atmosphere. Followed recognition of the need for arms control and prevention of nuclear war after Cuba. China and France did not sign.
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Nuclear program set up in 1955, with advisors, equipment and training from the USSR. Continued independently after cooling of Sino-Soviet relations. First successful nuclear test in Oct 1964
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Withdrew from NATO integrated military command, expelling NATO troops, although they remained in NATO politically. De Gaulle sought to assert French independence and autonomy, particularly after Suez.
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First thermonuclear bomb tested in 1967
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Apollo 11 astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin become the first men to walk on the moon. Launched on 16 July, returned to Earth on 24.
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Incensed by USSR's perceived betrayal and backing down in CMC, Castro sends troops to support revolutionary regime MLPA after Portugal's withdrawal.
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