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Paleolithic art can be identified by the use of natural pigments such as charcoal and ochre. as well as natural materials like bone, stone, and ivory. The artwork demonstrates the cognitive evolution of humans during the time period through themes like the natural world, fertility, survival, ritual, and religious or spiritual beliefs.
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The layered and detailed artwork of the panel of the horses suggests the people observed the horses in large herds. they were painted to signify how they were seen as powerful, moving groups in the natural world.
Panel of Four Horses. c. 30,000 BCE. Charcoal and ochre on cave wall. Chauvet–Pont d’Arc Cave, France, https://archeologie.culture.gouv.fr/chauvet/en/panel-horses -
The Venus of Willendorf's body proportions of a large abdomen and breasts signify fertility, a mother goddess or even a token of good luck. It was believed that the figure was used for rituals because during the paleolithic era a woman's survival during pregnancy and childbirth was a risk. Venus of Willendorf. c. 28,000-25,000 BCE. limestone. Naturhistorisches Museum Wien, Vienna, Austria, https://www.nhm.at/en/research/prehistory/research/venus-research -
The swimming deer's detailed posture and antlers is depicting the animal's migration during the fall. It also signifies humans early and well understanding of survival and hunting. Swimming Deer. c. 11,00 BCE. Mammoth Ivor. The British Museum, London, France https://www.bmimages.com/preview.asp?image=00751452001 -
Neolithic art is identifiable by the use of natural raw material like stone, clay, bone and natural pigments like charcoal and ochre. different artworks like pottery, structures, carvings, plastered skulls, and megaliths demonstrate themes of domestication, community identity and agriculture during the time period. As well as other themes like mortality, immortality, rituals and deities.
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The Jericho skull plastered with clay to preserve the skull was a way to show ancestorial worship. It was a way to show the early belief of morality and immorality.
Jericho Skull. c. 7,300 - 6,300 BCE. Human bone, clay and cowrie shell. The Ashmolean Museum.
https://www.ashmolean.org/collections-online#/item/ash-object-469081 -
The Pre-Dynastic Period (c. 5000-3000 BCE) is marked by its early emerging cities following the Nile River. This slowly developed cultural practices and ideologies, like social structures, cosmic beliefs, and order that would later establish the Egyptian civilization early idea of Ma'at. Art pieces like painted pottery, figurines, and ceremonial pieces were abstracted or had less detail focusing more on ritual symbolism rather than realism.
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The Sumerian period (4500-2334 BCE) was marked by its civilization evolution and religious beliefs. They were also known for their strict social structure within each city-state, and the kings were seen as the only ones who had the divine favor. Throughout the art pieces this can be seem form the use of rare material like lapis lazuli. Their ziggurats and votive figures show how the kings had the absolute social and religious power within the society.
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The Poulnabrone Dolmen signifies not just a territory marker for the community, but a final place of rest for the deceased. The neolithic community worshiped the passing of humans and their final place of rest. The megaliths were used as a way for the living to interact with their dead ancestors, showing the belief of death and the afterlife. Poulnabrone Dolmen. c. 4,200-2,900 BCE. limestone. County Clare, Ireland https://heritageireland.ie/unguided-sites/poulnabrone-portal-tomb/ -
The female figure (3500-3400 BCE) captures the emerging religious and social identity of Egypt.
Egyptians believed placing similar figures in burials gave a safe passage to afterlife and rebirth. The figures larger hips is a representation of fertility and the risen arms gesture praise and communication with the divine. Implying a ritual significance.
Female Figure. c. 3500 - 3400 BCE. Painted Terracotta, Brooklyn Museum, Brooklyn, New York, https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/objects/4225 -
The Warka Vase (3300-3000 BCE) demonstrates how the Sumerian society was organized. The two lower registers represent the importance of basic resources. The third register shows unclothed servants taking offerings to goddess Inanna. In the highest register the scene moves towards the middle to the largest figure, the goddess, showing that she controls the agriculture and social order. Warka Vase. 3,300-3000 BCE. Alabaster. Iraqi Museum, Bagdad, https://smarthistory.org/warka-vase -
The stones circular formation were a suggestion of astrological meaning marking important celestial cycles. The rectangular arrangement inside the stones could have signified ceremonial and ritual practices within the community.
Castle Rigg Stones. c.3200 BCE. Metamorphic slate. Keswick, United Kingdom
https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/castlerigg-stone-circle/history/ -
The Anu Ziggurat (3,200-3000 BCE) was used for religious and societal purposes and could only be used by elite officials, like the king and priests. The gods were seen as the true rulers, but the kings were seen as the divine favor and were the spokesman for the society. The high structure symbolizes authority for the king and connection with the gods. Anu Ziggurat with White Temple. c. 3,200-3,000 BCE. Mud-brick. Uruk (modern Warka, Iraq,
https://smarthistory.org/white-temple-and-ziggurat-uruk -
The Dynastic Period (3100-2672 BCE) is marked by one of the first kings, Narmer's divine ruling and his ability to keep Lower and Upper Egypt unified. The Kings were demonstrated as the ones with divine favor and the right to rule through art symbolism and techniques. This is represented in art with the kings and higher elite being carved onto hard stone material in a bigger size compared to civilian or enemies. This demonstrates their everlasting higher political and divine power.
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The Palette of Naram (2950-2775 BCE) represents the unification of lower and upper Egypt. The palette physically shows themes of military and divine power by showing Naram striking foreign enemies while wearing a red and white crown on either side symbolizing the two regions, his military authority and is the largest figure symbolizing his divine favor.
Palette of Narmer. c. 2950 - 2775 BCE. Siltstone. Egypt Museum, Cairo, https://egyptmuseum.com/the-narmer-palette/ -
During the Old Kingdom (2649-2130 BCE) Kings were not just seen as the ruler but were also seen as a physical representation of a god and the ones who had to maintain ma'at because they were the ones given the forever divine favor to rule from those gods. The art portrayed this with giving statues and pyramids ideological and perfect features with hard eternal materials. Along with symbolism connecting them to gods like Horus with the falcon showing protection and blessing of divine favor.
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The Enthroned Khafre (2520-2494 BCE) Signifies Ma'at and his divine power of keeping upper and lower Egypt in harmony. The throne shows this with reliefs of the lotus and papyrus plant which signifies the unification of the two regions. The statue shows divine favor to rule with the false beard, Nemes, and the falcon showing his connection and protection from the Gods Osirus and Horus.
Enthroned Khafre. c. 2520-2494 BCE. Diorite. Egypt Museum, Cairo, https://egypt museum.com/khafre-enthroned/ -
The Seated Scribe's (2510-2510 BCE) features show themes of naturalism. Compared to the rulers, the scribe shows the natural everyday life of an Egyptian and how they were portrayed because of the naturalistic features like the face structure and torso. There are also themes of knowledge because the scribe was usually the only person who was able to read and write documents.
Seated Scribe. c. 2510 - 2460 BCE. Painted Limestone, Louvre Museum, Paris, https://egypt-museum.com/the-seated-scribe/ -
Ebih-Il (2,500 BCE) is significant because the votive figure's sitting position and goat skirt demonstrates someone of higher authority within the religion and society. The use of lapis lazuli for the wide eyes, its rarity and high worth represent the eternal devotion to the gods. The votive figure is the messenger between the gods and humans. Ebih-Il of Mari. c. 2,500. Alabaster, Shell, Lapis Lazuli, Black Clay. Louvre Museum, Paris, France, https://collections.louvre.fr/ark:/53355/cl010120528 -
The King Menkaure and Khamerernebty (2490-2472 BCE) shows the theme of their royal partnership and unity during the 4th Dynasty. The piece demonstrates this with having Menkaure and Khamerernebty be almost the same height. Her posture of holding him and taking the same step as the king show her support and the royal harmony between the two.
King Menkaure (Mycerinus) and queen. c. 2490-2472 BCE. Greywacke. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, https://smarthistory.org/king-menkaure-mycerinus-and-queen/ -
The Akkadian period (2334-2154 BCE) was marked by its hierarchal social structure. Throughout multiple artworks the king was the largest figure and the most materials that were used in art pieces were hard stones. This represented that the king's power was everlasting. Themes like order, military power and the king's divine right to rule shaped the period and art because the kings were seen as the only ones to receive support from the gods.
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The Victory Stele of Naram-Sin (2254-2218 BCE) shows the Akkadian Empire the political and religious power Naram-sin had. Naram-Sin is shown as the biggest and highest figure making him the closest to the three suns that represent the gods and their guidance to Naram-sin and his army. this shows themes of how kings had the divine favor. Victory Steele of Naram-Sin. c. 2254-2218 BCE. Pink Sandstone. Musee de Louvre, Paris, France, https://collections.louvre.fr/en/ark:/53355/cl010123450 -
The Cylinder Lapis Seal demonstrated themes of wealth, identity, authority and order. The cylinder lapis seal is made up of the rare and expensive lapis lazuli and used as jewelry and was used for a personal signature. The lapis cylinder seal was used by royalty and served as a luxury marker.
Cylinder Lapis Seal. c. 2,100-1,600. Lapis Lazuli. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C.
https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/behavior/recording-information/assyrian-cylinder-seal -
After the decentralization of Egypt, the Middle Kingdom (1973-1638 BCE) Egypt presented a more serious idea of kingship and a stronger emphasis on restoring ma'at. Throughout different sculptures kingship becomes more humanized with more naturalistic expressions, symbolizing the hard work of rebuilding a civilization. During this period, middle-class citizens also had more access to religious spaces, allowing people to participate in the afterlife.
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The Stele of Amenemhat I (1950 BCE) shows the importance of royal lineage during the Middle Kingdom. It shows the king, queen and their son as the larger figures compared to their daughter, demonstrating he is the one next in line to rule. It also shows gender roles; the women are paler, representing their association with the domestic space.
Stele of Amenemhat I and his family. c. 1950 BCE. Painted Limestone. Egyptian Museum, Cairo, https://egypt-museum.com/stele-of-amenemhat-and-his-family/ -
The Guardian Statue (c. 1919-1885 BCE) mirrors how Egyptians believed after death came a dangerous journey where the soul had to pass divine tests and judgment. That is exactly what the Guardian Statue embodies. The crook on his left hand, the missing scepter, and red crown all symbolizes authority to protect and secure safe travel.
Guardian Statue. 1919-1885 BCE. Cedar wood, Plaster and Paint. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/543864 -
The Babylonian period (1894-539 BCE) was known for its centralized ruling with laws. The hard stone materials and carving techniques on written pieces represented laws being eternally permanent. Themes throughout the artworks like laws, divine authority, and order show that the gods gave the king the true power to give laws and punishment to the lower class in the Babylonian empire.
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During the Middle Kingdom, block statues became popular with the middle class allowing them to place them inside sacred temples while not challenging the higher authority. The statues blocks are carved into compact and humble build, compared to the detailed pharaoh statues. This shows how they have protection for the afterlife, but not the royal authority.
Early Block Statue. c. 1836-1759 BCE. Granite. Brooklyn Museum, Brooklyn, New York, https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/objects/3399 -
The Stele of Hammurabi (1780 BCE) was important to the Babylonian society because it shows order for the lower class. The lower two thirds have written laws, and the top third demonstrates themes of divine power and order. The height is intended to show high power between the laws and the king. Its tall height is also used as a form of intimidation. Stele of Hammurabi. c. 1780 BCE. Black Diorite. Musee de Louvre, Paris, France, https://collections.louvre.fr/en/ark:/53355/cl010174436 -
During the New Kingdom (1570-1070 BCE) Egypt became an empire, expanding even further. during this period pharaohs were not just seen as warrior kings but military show political and religious power pharaohs like Hatshepsut, Thutmose III and Ramesses the Great who all used large temples, statues and military propaganda to legitimize their divine favor and their military power.
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Before New Kingdom and Hatshepsut no woman had ruled as a pharaoh. The Seated Statue of Hatshepsut (1479-1458 BCE) shows themes of cultural, royal and gender revolution. She is sitting on a thrown wearing a Nemes which a king is allowed to wear. This shows her breaking societal biases and having great divine power to rule despite being a woman.
The Seated Statue of Hatshepsut. c. 1479-1458 BCE. Limestone. Metropolitan Museum, New York City, https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/544450 -
Obelisks were used as sacred cosmic monuments dedicated to the sun god Ra. Hatshepsut's obelisk is inscribed with hieroglyphics that were a political and religious connection to the god Amun-Ra giving her divine right to rule and showing she was a female ruler. Hatshepsut used the very tall obelisk to legitimize herself as a pharaoh.
Obelisk of Hatshepsut. c. 1473-1453 BCE. Pink Granite. Wadjet Hall, Luxor, Egypt, https://digitalkarnak.ucsc.edu/obelisks-of-wadjet-hall/ -
The Judgement of Hunefer (1285 BCE) contains themes of spells and ritual that aided the deceased into the afterlife. Throughout the piece Hunefer is being judged. His heart is weighted against a feather symbolizing Ma'at and having lived a moral life. He is presented to Osiris the god of the underworld and is allowed eternal afterlife.
Judgement of Hunefer Before Osiris. c.1285 BCE. Painted Papyrus. British Museum, London, https://smarthistory.org/hunefers-judgement-in-the-presence-of-osiris/ -
The Assyrian period (900-612 BCE) represents the military and conquest power the empire had. The art demonstrates themes of war, power, kingship, protection, intimidation and religious devotion. The kings were seen as powerful warriors through nature and society. The large statues forward stance and side stance throughout the palace showed intimidation for any intruder and protection for the king.
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Ancient Etruria (c. 900-100 BCE) was made of individual city-states that shared religious beliefs and social values. During earlier periods they were all run by kings but become an oligarchy run by the rich. The Etruscans were also very skilled in trade and metallurgy influencing art production from and to other societies like the Near East, Greece, and Rome which later colonized. The art shows these influences with the use of geometric pottery, mythological creatures, and materials like bronze.
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The Geometric Period (c. 900-700 BCE) is marked by its evolution in city-states, and evolving trade after the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization around 1100 BCE also known as the Dark Era. The culture became all about stability order and also community. This was shown through artwork with their ceramics and vases. The art was very symmetrical and showed order with their repetitive designs. They were also used as grave markers. This showed that their art was slowly becoming more narrative.
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The Lamassu (c. 883-859 BCE) was important during the Assyrian era because its tall and large structure signify was used as a form of protection and royal, political propaganda. The lamassu is a mix of different powerful beings, humans, bulls and eagle wings. Each of these animals represent themes of intelligence, strength, and divine power.
Lamassu. c. 883-859 BCE. Alabaster. British Museum, London, https://smarthistory.org/lamassu-from-the-citadel-of-sargon-ii/ -
The Orientalizing Period (c. 800-650 BCE) represents a society that was influenced by other cultures. The trade routes connected to Greece brought in new materials. They experimented with identity by consuming different ideas from the Ancient Near East. This introduced a new Greek art style. Paintings on vases and statues of animals and mythological creature like lions, griffins, sirens and sphinxes became popularized during this period. As well as the human body.
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The Dipylon Amphora was a grave marker used funeral ceremonies. The vase shows themes of status, and order. The vase has registers of symmetric symbols representing their wanting of structure. A register shows a funeral with civilians coming together mourning an elite. The large size also showed, only the wealthy could commission this status symbol.
Dipylon Amphora. c. 760-750 BCE. Terracotta. National Archaeological Museum, Athens, https://www.namuseum.gr/en/collection/geometriki-periodos-3/ -
The Eleusis Amphora showed a shift from geometric abstracted art towards more narrative art. The large vase was used as a grave vessel, and had a deceased child buried inside. The vase symbolized the family's higher status and wanting to honor their child. The painted heroic scenes symbolized protection in the afterlife for the deceased child.
Eleusis Amphora. c. 675-650 BCE. Terracotta and Clay. Archaeological Museum of Eleusis, Greece, https://smarthistory.org/eleusis-amphora/ -
The Parade Fibula represents the Orientalizing Period's use of luxury metals and influences from Greece and Egypt. They introduced Etruscans to exotic motifs. The Parade Fibula demonstrates this with themes of statues due to it being detailed with granulated gold and lions.
The Parade Fibula. c. 675-650 BCE. Gold. Vatican Museum, Rome, https://www.museivaticani.va/content/museivaticani/en/collezioni/musei/museo-gregoriano-etrusco/sala-ii--tomba-regolini-galassi/grande-fibula-da-parata.html -
The Archaic Period (c. 650-480 BCE) marks the growth of colonization, city-states, and the evolving trade. Colonized polis became like military camps where the men's task was to maintain order and the also became a democracy where the community was taken into consideration. The society also valued strength, the ideal human body, happiness and pride. This is reflected through their art like the nude male statues and archaic smiles showing how they valued perfection, heroism and well-being.
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Ashurbanipal and His Queen in the Garden demonstrates themes of the natural world, power and conquest. The carving shows a relaxing king and queen, surrounded by their servants and garden showing off their lavish way of life. It also demonstrates the king's conquests, because a head is hanging from the tree.
Ashurbanipal and His Queen in the Garden. c. 645-635 BCE. Alabaster. British Museum, London, https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1856-0909-15 -
The Persian period (550-330 BCE) is marked by its themes of cultural unity and harmony as well as religious tolerance. Instead of glorifying war, and violence. The kings were seen as peaceful rulers. The calm reliefs theme express communicated control and unity unlike other empires that made their art pieces intimidating and violent.
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The Cyrus Cylinder (c. 539 BCE) represents themes of divine favor for the king, cultural unity and religious tolerance. In the carvings it is written, king Cyrus believed he was the true king chosen by the gods. He promised to treat people fairly the period had. The Cyrus Cylinder showed how the king saw themself as a moral leader who brought piece unlike others.
The Cyrus Cylinder. c. 539 BCE. Baked Clay. British Museum, London, https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1880-0617-1941 -
The Tomb of Augurs shows the Archaic Period's urban culture expression, rising wealth, as well interaction with Greek art. The tomb walls show themes of rituals and honor. The Painted fresco shows funeral games as well as a false door to the afterlife for the elite. The two figures in prayer shows this event was a ritual.
Archaic Period, Etruscan Culture, Tomb of the Augurs, c. 530-520 BCE, Fresco, Monterozzi Necropolis Tarquinia, Italy, https://tarquiniaturismo.com/tomb-of-the-augurs/?lang=en -
The Behistan Inscription (c. 522-486 BCE) shows themes of authority, propaganda and power. In the large relief is Darius I's autobiography. He explains he is the chosen king of kings, the king in Persia and comes from a royal lineage. In his relief he says others have lied about being kings and threatened the empire, so he killed them to show he is the defender of the empire.
Behistun Inscription. c. 522-486 BCE. Limestone. Mount Behistun, Iran https://www.worldhistory.org/Behistun_Inscription/ -
The staircase relief (c.520-330) shows themes of united power and harmony. The eight figures are divided into two separate parties. This can be identified by the different clothing and gear they use. The soldiers' stance shows no chaos but order and control. Defining a unified empire. Apadana Staircase Relief. c. 520–330 B.C.E Limestone. Persepolis Archaeological Site, Fars Province, Iran, https://www.livius.org/articles/place/persepolis/persepolis-photos/persepolis-apadana-east-stairs/ -
The Dying Warrior represents a society were dying in war was seen as honorable. The Dying Warrior demonstrates this with themes of courage and identity. The statue physically shows this with the warrior in an archaic smile, holding his shield upright and using it as support. This shows he is willing to die as an honorable warrior.
Dying Warrior (East Pediment). c. 495-490 BCE. Marble. Glyptothek, Germany, https://smarthistory.org/east-and-west-pediments-from-the-temple-of-aphaia-aegina/ -
The Early Classical Period (c. 480-450) represents the effects of Greece after the Persian Wars. Persia added tension to Greece. This caused the society to value order even more as well as discipline and unity. The art demonstrates this with the change from the archaic smile to sever style and more humanistic. Statues now show the importance and seriousness of rebuilding their empires and military. The temples were a symbol of shared identity. With the temples' columns being very minimal
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The Discobolus statue by Myron represents the Greek Olympic games as well as early classical period's social values of arete, human excellence, calmness and the idealized body. The statue physically shows this by having the very detailed humanistic statue in a contrapposto pose, but also with a serious expression showing the harmony between the mind and body.
Myron, Discobolus Statue, c. 460-450 BCE, Marble copy, British Museum, London, https://artincontext.org/discobolus-statue/ -
High Classical Period (c. 450-400 BCE) also known as the golden age of Greece was marked by the political and economic growths in city-states like Athens. The aftermath of the Persian wars created unity, balance, perfection and rationality. This was shown through the rebuilding of their monuments by making them harmonious with their columns being evenly proportionate. Their sculptures also showed perfection, stability and the ideal body by making them seven heads tall and with calm expressions.
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The Funerary Stele shows the role to keep the household in order where the men's role was about the public and military life. It shows themes of high status, gender roles, and afterlife. It shows the seated woman in large scale alongside a servant, showing higher status. The enclosed style shows being in the domestic lifestyle even after death.
High Classical Period. Funerary Stele of Hegeso. c. 400 BCE. Marble. Kerameikos cemetery, Athens, http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/4/eh430.jsp?obj_id=5422 -
The Chimera of Arezzo demonstrates the Classical Period's influence of Greek mythology. The sculpture shows themes of heroism, danger and cultural exchange. It is shown through the piece hybrid creature's bronze material and carved details similar to Greek sculptures. As well as showing dramatic narration of the creature being attacked.
Chimera of Arezzo. c. 400-350 BCE. Bronze. Museo Archeologico, Nazionale, Florence,https://cultura.gov.it/luogo/maf-museo-archeologico-nazionale-di-firenze -
Late Classical Period (c. 400-323 BCE) was affected, politically, economically and socially due to the Peloponnesian War causing the downfall of city-states. Philip II and Alexander the Great dominated Macedon, conquering and expanding Greek culture. The artwork reflects this with it becoming more individualized moving away from the restrained harmonious style. The art was more emotional and expressive through the increase of sensuality, softness, and dramatized contrapposto pose.
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The statue of Aphrodite of Knidos was one of the first sculpture of a nude woman. Aphrodite was portrayed to be the goddess of love and beauty. This statue along with other nude sculptures of woman became the ideal feminine for men in ancient Greece. The statue is in pudica pose and isn't engaging with the viewer showing she is still modest.
Praxiteles. Aphrodite of Knidos. c. 350 BCE. Marble. The Glyptothek Museum, Munich, https://museum.classics.cam.ac.uk/collections/casts/aphrodite-knidos -
The Hellenism Period (c. 323-31 BCE) was marked by its expansion of urbanization, trade, economic growth and the shift from polis to monarchy. Alexander the great's death had an effect on Greek culture, but his conquests influenced fusion between cultures and identities between Greek and outside civilizations. Hellenistic art reflects this with narrating intense scenes through their artworks. They showed more extreme expressions through their complex poses. their deep carvings showed struggle.
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The Ludovisi Gaul sculpture tells the story of the defeat of the Galatians. The warrior killed his wife to save her from becoming a slave after their defeat. The warrior could not bear the pain, so he commits suicide. The theatrical expressions, nude soldier and the warrior's deep wounds shows themes of heroism and nobility.
Ludovisi Gaul Sculpture, c. 220 BCE, Marble copy, Museum Palazzo Altemps, Rome, https://artincontext.org/ludovisi-gaul-sculpture/