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Many spoke tribal languages: Celtic, Irish, Cornish etc
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Core of Latin lexis:
street from strata
chester from castra (fortified military camp) eg in Manchester -
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Brought in common terms e.g. land, food etc and action/regular verbs
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Ed the Confessor was on the English throne but needed an heir, Harold from England received the throne. William (France/Normandy) waited for the easter invasions to finish, attacked from the south and became ruler of England. French was now high prestige in England (Old English + French - accommodation).
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People in England slowly changed how they pronounced long vowels. Words kept their old spelling, but the sounds changed, which is why English spelling is confusing today. E.g. house used to sound like “hoose”
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Act that declared “All official businesses will now be conducted in English” — English gained a higher status.
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William Caxton introduced the printing press to London. Mass production = beginning of standardised spelling and punctuation
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loan Latin/Greek (interest in classicals again)→ incorporate Latin/Greek words science, philosophy, arts. = vocab expand. spelling standardisation groundwork laid, printing press crucial, texts available. Literature/Expression growth(Shakespeare), Italian/French Influence, Europe movement→ influenced English. Humanism/Vernacular Language, emphasised human experience/knowledge value, want use of common language not Latin, helped elevate English for intellectual/artistic expression + virgule use
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Translation of Bible into English, Rise of Vernacular (in religious teaching), Increased Literacy and Education (spread language across social classes), Theological and Linguistic Debates, Political and Cultural Influence, Sociopolitical Influence - shifts in power dynamics, spread of English was seen as a way to separate English speakers from influence of Roman Catholic Church. English became a tool in the growing sense of national pride and identity,
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believed there was a superfluity of letters in spelling. Also observed there were "corruptions" and "confusion and disorder"
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Foundational educational and linguistic text arguing for the use of English over Latin in education and provided a "general table" of 8,000 words to standardise English spelling, aiming to promote national pride and intellectual development in English. Mulcaster had a desire for stabilisation in spelling.
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Full of metaphorical language, Ye = the and Yt = that. Everyone had to have a Bible but they were all different, this brought standardisation. -eth inflection, no used of "do" with negatives, his instead of its, prepositions with different meanings, an used before "h".
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Revival of arts and literature (theatre, drama, poetry and prose), rise of formal English and standardisation (grammar/spelling and its usage), expansion of vocabulary, influence of the French court (King Charles II return), development of modern English, role of the press, literary style and language use, influence on the rise of the novel
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took almost 9 years to complete, remarkably almost completely single-handedly, and is now considered as one of the most influential dictionaries in the history of the English language.
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Increased urbanisation/increased scope of trade = increased contact → language assimilation, communication needed over long distances → telegrams (had to be informative, concise + easy jargon). new inventions needed names → turned to Latin and Greek, increased education → standardisation required
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established many strict "rules" of English, focusing on prescriptive grammar to distinguish correct from incorrect usage. It aimed to bring order to English by enforcing standards
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taught standard English without Greek/Latin prerequisites or any of the linguistic elitism that the British favoured. Taught spelling, standardised American English, and spread Webster’s preferred spellings and pronunciation
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Reaction to/revolt against industrialisation and political + social norms of the Enlightenment (intellectual movement about the power of reason). Romantics believed in nature over industry, individual over rules and conventions, personal feelings over logic, reason and rationalism, democratic language over flowery, academic and inaccessible language (William Wordsworth - I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud). Stressed the value of art.
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After the American Revolution, Webster believed America needed its own language standards instead of copying Britain. He thought: a new nation should have its own language, American English should reflect American culture and values, British rules were too aristocratic/old-fashioned. He simplified spellings because he thought spelling should be: logical, phonetic, easier to learn
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Queen Victoria's reign - borrowed/loan words
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