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The Great Game was the long political and strategic rivalry between the British Empire and the Russian Empire over control and influence in Central Asia. Both powers wanted to protect their borders and expand their influence, especially around Afghanistan. Spies, diplomats, and explorers played important roles. Although it rarely led to direct fighting, the tension shaped the region’s politics and helped define modern borders.
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The opening of the Suez Canal marked the start of a new and faster sea route between Europe and Asia. The canal connected the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea, allowing ships to avoid the long trip around Africa. Its inauguration was a major international event and changed global trade, making travel and commerce much quicker and more efficient. -
The Berlin Conference was a meeting where European powers decided how to divide Africa among themselves. No African leaders were invited, and the decisions ignored the cultures and borders of the people living there. The conference set rules for claiming territory and started a period of intense colonization. Its impact shaped Africa’s borders and caused long‑lasting political and social problems. -
The Fashoda Incident was a tense standoff between France and Britain in East Africa. Both countries wanted control of the same region, and their forces met in the town of Fashoda. For a moment, it looked like the conflict could start a war. In the end, France stepped back, and the crisis ended peacefully. The incident showed how strong the rivalry for colonies was and pushed both nations to improve their relationship later on. -
The First Moroccan Crisis began when Germany challenged France’s growing influence in Morocco. Germany said Morocco should stay independent, hoping to weaken France and test its alliances. The tension led to an international conference, where most countries supported France. The crisis increased distrust between European powers and pushed them closer to future conflict. -
The Second Moroccan Crisis started when France sent troops to Morocco during a local revolt. Germany reacted by sending a warship to pressure France and demand territory. The situation created fear of war in Europe. In the end, Germany backed down in exchange for land in Africa. The crisis made the rivalry between Germany, France, and Britain even stronger, raising tensions before World War I. -
Was fought between the Balkan League (Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro) and the Ottoman Empire. The League aimed to expel the Ottomans from their remaining European territories. After rapid victories, the Ottomans lost most of their land in the Balkans. However, disputes over how to divide the conquered territories created tensions, especially between Serbia and Bulgaria, leading directly to the Second Balkan War. -
Broke out when Bulgaria, dissatisfied with its share of territory after the First Balkan War, attacked its former allies Serbia and Greece. Both countries resisted successfully, and Romania and the Ottoman Empire joined the war against Bulgaria. Defeated on all fronts, Bulgaria lost much of the land it had gained earlier. The conflict reshaped borders in the Balkans and increased tensions in the region just before World War I. -
Was a major World War I clash where French and British forces stopped the German advance toward Paris. Fought near the Marne River, it ended Germany’s Schlieffen Plan and forced a retreat. The battle marked the beginning of trench warfare, as both sides dug in along the Western Front, leading to a long and static conflict. -
Was a major early clash on the Eastern Front of World War I. German forces, led by Hindenburg and Ludendorff, encircled and crushed the Russian Second Army commanded by Samsonov. Russia suffered massive losses and a humiliating defeat. The victory boosted German morale and secured East Prussia, while exposing Russia’s logistical and communication weaknesses. -
Occurred in Sarajevo, where Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb nationalist, killed the heir to the Austro‑Hungarian throne and his wife. Austria‑Hungary blamed Serbia and issued an ultimatum. The crisis triggered a chain reaction of alliances and mobilizations, leading Europe into World War I. The event became the symbolic spark of the conflict. -
The Schlieffen Plan was Germany’s strategy to win quickly at the start of World War I. The idea was to attack France through Belgium, defeat it fast, and then move the army east to fight Russia. When Germany put the plan into action, Belgium resisted, France fought back, and Britain joined the war. The plan failed, and the fighting turned into a long and deadly stalemate on the Western Front. -
The sinking of the Lusitania happened when a German submarine torpedoed a British passenger ship during World War I. The ship went down very quickly, and many civilians died. The event shocked the world and increased anger toward Germany. It also pushed the United States closer to joining the war, as people saw the attack as unfair and dangerous for innocent passengers. -
The Armenian Genocide was the mass killing and forced removal of Armenians by the Ottoman Empire during World War I. Many Armenians were taken from their homes, sent on long marches, or died because of violence, hunger, and harsh conditions. The event deeply affected the Armenian people and is remembered as one of the major human tragedies of the twentieth century. -
The Treaty of London was a secret agreement in which Italy promised to join the Allies in World War I. In return, the Allies offered Italy new territories if they won the war. The goal was to convince Italy to leave its old alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary. The treaty changed the balance of the war and showed how countries used promises of land to gain support. -
Was one of the longest and deadliest battles of World War I. Germany launched an offensive to exhaust France by attacking the fortified city of Verdun. For ten brutal months, both sides fought in horrific conditions. With massive casualties, Verdun became a symbol of French endurance and one of the most devastating clashes of the war. -
Was a major World War I operation in which the Allies tried to seize control of the Dardanelles Strait to open a supply route to Russia. British, French, Australian, and New Zealand troops landed on the Gallipoli peninsula but faced strong Ottoman resistance led by Mustafa Kemal. After months of heavy losses and no progress, the Allies withdrew. The battle became a symbol of Ottoman resilience and a defining moment for ANZAC identity. -
The Sykes–Picot Agreement was a secret deal between Britain and France to divide the Middle Eastern lands of the Ottoman Empire after the war. They drew borders without considering the people living there, creating zones of control for each country. This agreement shaped many of the modern borders in the region and later caused tension and conflict because it ignored local identities and interests. -
Was a major political upheaval that ended centuries of tsarist rule. First, the February Revolution overthrew Tsar Nicholas II due to war exhaustion, hunger, and social unrest, creating a provisional government. Later, the October Revolution, led by Lenin and the Bolsheviks, seized power promising “peace, land, and bread.” This triggered a civil war between Reds and Whites and led to the creation of the Soviet Union in 1922. -
The Balfour Declaration was a statement from the British government supporting the idea of creating a “national home” for the Jewish people in Palestine. It did not explain clearly how this would work or how it would affect the Arab population already living there. The declaration later became an important and controversial part of the region’s history, shaping future conflicts and political debates. -
Were U.S. President Woodrow Wilson’s plan to create a fair and lasting peace after World War I. They caled for open diplomacy, freedom of the seas, reduction of armaments, fair colonial policies, and the redrawing of European borders based on national self‑determination. The finalpoint proposed creating the League of Nations to prevent future conflicts. Although not all points were adopted in the Treaty of Versailles, they strongly influenced postwar diplomacy and the idea ofcollective security. -
Russia and the Central Powers signed the Treaty of Brest‑Litovsk in 1918, ending Russia’s role in World War I. The Bolshevik government accepted very harsh terms, losing Ukraine, Poland, the Baltic states and other territories. Though humiliating, Lenin saw it as necessary to secure the revolution. The treaty was annulled after Germany’s defeat later that year. -
Was the last major German offensive of World War I. Germany tried to break Allied lines near the Marne River, but French, British, American, and Italian forces launched a strong counterattack. The German advance collapsed, marking a turning point in the war. After this defeat, Germany was pushed back continuously until the Armistice. -
Emerged from the Treaty of Versailles after World War I. Proposed mainly by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, it aimed to maintain peace through collective security, diplomacy, and conflict resolution. Although the United States never joined, the League worked on disarmament, minority protection, and international cooperation. Its weaknesses and inability to stop aggression in the 1930s led to its failure, but it laid the foundation for the United Nations in 1945. -
Was a post–World War I peace treaty signed between the Allies and Bulgaria. Bulgaria lost territory to Greece, Yugoslavia, and Romania, and had to limit its army and pay reparations. The treaty left the country weakened and resentful, fueling political instability in the interwar period. It was part of the broader effort to reshape borders in the Balkans after the war. -
Was the main peace treaty ending World War I between the Allies and Germany. It blamed Germany for the war, imposed heavy reparations, limited its army, and took away territory and colonies. The treaty also created the League of Nations. Many Germans saw it as humiliating, which fueled resentment and instability in the interwar period. -
Was a post–World War I peace treaty between the Allies and Austria. It dissolved the Austro‑Hungarian Empire and recognized the independence of new states like Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. Austria lost large territories to Italy, Poland, Romania, and the new states, and was forbidden from uniting with Germany. The treaty left Austria economically weakened and politically unstable in the interwar period. -
Was one of the peace treaties after World War I, signed between the Allies and Hungary. It drastically reduced Hungary’s territory, population, and resources: the country lost about two‑thirds of its land and millions of ethnic Hungarians ended up living in neighboring states. The treaty caused deep resentment in Hungary and shaped its politics for decades. -
Was a post–World War I agreement between the Allies and the Ottoman Empire. It dismantled much of the empire, granting territory to Greece, creating zones of influence for Britain, France, and Italy, and proposing an independent Armenia and Kurdistan. The treaty was deeply unpopular in Turkey and sparked nationalist resistance led by Mustafa Kemal. It was never fully implemented and was later replaced by the Treaty of Lausanne (1923). -
The Republic of Turkey was created after the fall of the Ottoman Empire. A leader named Atatürk took charge and built a new, modern, and secular state. He ended the rule of sultans and introduced big reforms in education, law, and society. These changes helped Turkey move away from its old system and become a modern nation focused on progress. -
The Dawes Plan was an international agreement created to help Germany recover after World War I. Germany had to pay huge reparations, but its economy was collapsing. The plan reduced the payments, reorganized Germany’s finances, and gave the country loans from the United States. This helped stabilize the German economy for a few years and improved relations between European countries, although the solution was only temporary.
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