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National independence coalition formed in 1941 by HCM to resist Japanese occupation and gain independence from France.
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In 1949, the Vietnamese emperor-in-exile Bao Dai returned to power. Popular communist nationalist Ho Chi Minh declared the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, launching the war. SE Asia was seen as vulnerable to communism, important for containment and as a market for Japanese goods. France was suffering heavy casualties (e.g. 1952: 90,000) and by 1954 the US was paying 75%. Gen Ridgway convinced E the war was futile, conference called in Apr 54 when the French were near defeat by the Viet Minh.
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From France
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Aimed to end the Indochina war. Created 2 zones along the 17th parallel, with the US-French in the South and nationalists in the North. Not intended to be permanent, and national elections were set for 2 years time. Ngo Dinh Diem became the first president of south Vietnam in 1955, refused to sign any peace agreements.
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Rigged referendum on 23 Oct with propaganda and suppression campaign led to PM Diem being declared the winner. Emperor Bao Dai was removed, Diem proclaimed the Republic of Vietnam on 26 Oct
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Aggressive, often inefficient land reforms (on advice of China) and the deaths of 6,000 people putting down revolts in 1956 led to 1 million refugees fleeing to the South. HCM was forced to apologise publicly in Aug 1956. With full collectivisation initiated, agricultural production increased.
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Diem feared that HCM was too popular. Kept the country divided. HCM focused on consolidating communism in the North.
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Eisenhower calls him the "miracle man of Asia" despite growing opposition to his corrupt, divisive, nepotistic rule. Embezzled US economic aid, appointed his brother Ngo Dinh Nhu as PM. Appointed Catholic officials (unpopular, reminded people of the French) in positions of power, ignored the wishes of the people (Buddhist-majority).
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At 15th Plenum of North Vietnamese Central Committee, they commit to reunification and support for anti-Diem revolutionary groups. In 1959, decision is taken to use military force to overthrow Diem as economy and political control was strong enough.
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National Liberation Front established in Dec 1960 by North Vietnam with the aim to remove US imperialism, defeat Diem and create a united independent Vietnam. Nguyen Huu Tho was official leader- not in breach of Geneva Agreement as they were not officially communist, focused on self-determination. 10 point program: reflected religous diversity, appealed to wide range. HCM Trail established to provide NLF with equipment and personnel. Nicknamed 'Vietcong'. Many former Viet Minh joined.
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General Maxwell Taylor described Vietnam as a lab for counterinsurgency tactics. Was sent to Vietnam in Nov with Walt Roscow (chair of state planning dept policy committee) to assess.
Recommendations:
-increase in helicopter force
-training for SV army (ARVN)
-increase combat forces, send up to 10K
-strategic bombing of NV -
March 1962: Operation Sunrise. Forced relocation of South Vietnamese peasants in fortified, armed hamlets to protect/isolate them from Vietcong.
3000 hamlets with 4m people by Sept 1962. Failure as corruption and unpopularity helped recruitment into NLF, who did not. Corrupt officials took money that was meant to maintain hamlets e.g. medical aid, fertiliser, seeds etc. -
Diem appointed fellow Catholics and Catholic exiles from the North into govt or military roles despite Buddhist majority. Brother Ngo Dinh Thuc made archbishop of Hue. Persecution of Buddhists e.g. banned from flying flags in honour of Buddha's birthday, banned from listening to Tri Quang's speech. 9 killed during protests in Hue in May. Monk Quang Doc burnt himself alive in Saigon in protest in June. Hunger strikes, mass rallies, appeals to US
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Aug 1963. Head of state dept for the east Roger Hilsman tells ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge to start planning for a coup to replace Diem. 29 Aug: Lodge tells Kennedy that removing Diem is not necessary to resolve the situation. Kennedy affirms US support for Diem, but begins to reduce military support etc. as they believe Diem cannot control the situation or stop repression
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Dissident SV generals planned a coup, encouraged by wavering US support for Diem. 1 Nov: military coup activated. Diem and Nhu assassinated on 2 Nov. 6 Nov: Lodge claims that it was a "purely Vietnamese affair"
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