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After Britain brought Canada into WWI to defend Belgium from Germany, between 4,000 and 6,000 Indigenous people volunteered to serve in the Canadian military. Many of them won military awards, like Francis Pegahmagabow.
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With the signing of the armistice, Canada's active involvement in fighting WWI ended. Despite their service, many Indigenous veterans were denied veterans benefits upon their return to Canada.
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The League of Indians forms to advocate for improved living conditions and the protection of Indigenous rights and practices. Though its effectiveness is weakened by government harassment, police surveillance, and disunity among
Indigenous groups, it forms the basis for Indigenous political organizing in the future. -
The Story of a National Crime, published by Dr.
P.H. Bryce, Chief Medical Officer for Canada’s
Department of the Interior and Indian Affairs, argues
that Indigenous people’s health is being ignored in
Residential Schools and Indian Hospitals,
in violation of treaty pledges. Dr. Bryce's book was based on his time researching the conditions on Indigenous people both on reserve and in residential schools. The results of his research were kept secret by the government. -
Cayuga Chief Deskaheh (Levi General) campaigns to have the League of Nations recognize the Six Nations of Grand River as a sovereign nation.
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Census takers in the Canadian government complained about Inuit not bearing traditional
Christian names, such as a lack of family surnames and the multiplicity of some name, arose. This started decades of government labelling strategies to ease the recording of census information and entrench
federal authority in the North. Among the failed
initiatives are metal discs with ID numbers (1940s), and Project Surname (1970). -
After Germany invaded Poland, the Canadian government voted to join Britain in declaring war on Germany. Between 5,000 and 8,000 Indigenous soldiers fight for Canada in the Second World War, serving in all major battles and campaigns. Most did not receive the same support or compensation as other veterans upon returning home after the war ended.
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Indigenous lobbying of the government led to Indian Act amendments. These changes gave elected band
councils more powers, awarded women the right to vote in band elections, and lifted the ban on the potlatch and sun dances. Some soldiers who fought alongside Indigenous men and women in WWI and WWII supported the change. -
The federal government forcefully moves 87 Inuit from Inukjuak in northern Québec to Ellesmere and Cornwallis Islands. The relocation is part of the government’s effort to secure northern territorial sovereignty during the Cold War. Adequate support for the communities does not follow.
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Elsie Marie Knott becomes the first female chief of a First Nation in Canada when she is elected to lead the
Anishinaabe (Ojibwe) Curve Lake First Nation near Peterborough, Ontario. She held the position for 16 years. -
Status Indians receive the right to vote in federal elections, no longer losing their status or treaty rights in the process.
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Thousands of Indigenous children are taken from their families and communities by provincial and federal social workers and placed in foster or
adoption homes, often with non-Indigenous families. The number taken from their birth families in the “Sixties Scoop” varies by province, but the practice occurs often on the Prairies. The process is emotionally traumatic for parents and leaves
many children with a lost sense of cultural identity. -
Eastern Arctic Inuit of the Northwest Territories begin
discussions about forming an Inuit territory. -
The Native Women’s Association of Canada is established to advocate for the social, political, and economic welfare of Indigenous women and girls. It promotes education, challenges discriminatory policies, and works to reduce inequality.
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The Supreme Court of Canada agrees that Indigenous peoples held title to land before European colonization, that this title existed in law, and that it continues unless specifically extinguished. Named for Nisga’a chief Frank Calder, the Calder Case forces the government to adopt new policies to negotiate land claims with Indigenous peoples not covered by treaties.
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An anti-sealing campaign led by Greenpeace attacks Inuit hunting practices, economically devastating
Inuit communities for years. Greenpeace publicly expresses regret in 2014. -
Activists travel by train from Vancouver to Ottawa aboard the “Constitution Express” to raise awareness about the lack of recognition of Indigenous rights in the proposed Canadian constitution.
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The Assembly of First Nations is formed out of the National Indian Brotherhood to promote the interests of First Nations in the realm of self-government, respect for treaty rights, education, health, land, and resources.
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The Indian Act is amended to address discrimination faced by First Nations women who face the loss of their Indian status if they marry non-status Indians. This change occurs when Sandra Lovelace Nicholas, a Wolastoqiyik (Maliseet) woman from New Brunswick, brings her case to the UN Human Rights Committee.
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The Canadian Constitution is patriated (brought from British control to Canadian control), and thanks to the work of Indigenous peoples, Section 35 recognizes and affirms Aboriginal title and treaty rights. Later, Section 37 is amended, obligating the federal and provincial governments to consult with Indigenous peoples on outstanding issues.
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The Inuvialuit and the federal government sign the Inuvialuit Final Agreement, a massive Western Arctic land claim.
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The Meech Lake Accord collapses when Elijah Harper, the lone First Nations member in the Manitoba legislature, blocks its passage, citing the accord’s failure to consult with First Nations or recognize their
constitutional rights. -
he Supreme Court makes several key decisions respecting Indigenous people, including but not limited to: 1) a 1997 ruling that traditional Indigenous land rights and title cannot be extinguished by the British Columbia government and validating oral testimony as a source of evidence; and 2) a 2003 ruling prescribing three conditions for Métis status: self-identification as a Métis individual; ancestral
connection to a historical Métis community; and acceptance by a Métis community. -
Inuit and the governments of the Northwest Territories and Canada sign the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement, the largest in Canada’s history. A new territory, Nunavut, is created from the central and eastern portions of the N.W.T. in 1999.
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The final report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples is published. It recommends a public inquiry into the effects of Residential Schools and calls for improved relations between governments, Indigenous peoples, and non-Indigenous Canadians.
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The closure of Gordon Residential School in Punnichy, Saskatchewan, marks the end of the Residential School system in Canada.
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The terms of the Nisga’a Final Agreement come into effect, granting the Nisga’a $196 million over 15 years plus communal self-government and control of natural resources in parts of northwestern British Columbia.
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The Supreme Court makes several key decisions respecting Indigenous people, including but not limited to ruling prescribing three conditions for Métis status: self-identification as a Métis individual; ancestral connection to a historical Métis community; and acceptance by a Métis community.
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The Kelowna Accord follows 18 months of consultation among federal, provincial, territorial, and Indigenous leaders on health, education, social, and economic improvements for Indigenous peoples. While 5 billion dollars is promised, no formal agreement on how to dispense the money is reached. A federal election is called, and the Accord is not
implemented by the new government. -
The Nunavik Inuit Land Claims Agreement comes into effect, addressing ownership of land and resources in James Bay, Hudson Bay, Hudson Strait, and Ungava Bay, as well as part of northern Labrador.
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Prime Minister Stephen Harper issues a statement of apology to former students of Residential Schools in Canada for the harm caused by assimilationist goals, abuse, and cultural loss. Prime Minister Justin Trudeau extends the apology in 2017 to students of Residential Schools in Newfoundland and Labrador.
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Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada formally
acknowledges Supreme Court rulings on the Crown’s “duty to consult” and, if appropriate, accommodate when the Crown considers initiating activities or decisions – often dealing with natural resource extraction – that might impact Indigenous peoples’ treaty rights. -
Four women start Idle No More as a national (and online) movement of marches and teach-ins, raising awareness of Indigenous rights and advocacy for self-determination.
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In Daniels et al. v. Canada, the Supreme Court rules that Métis and non-status Indigenous peoples are “Indians” within the meaning of s. 91:24 of the Constitution Act, 1867. Like the Inuit, they are not included under the Indian Act.
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The Indian Residential School Truth and Reconciliation Commission issues its final report, documenting the experiences of approximately 150,000 Residential School students and
Survivors. -
An Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls is launched in response to calls for action from families, communities, and organizations.