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Aristotle begins to tutor 13 year old Alexander, taking place outside of the capital, away from his parents. Studied history, philosophy, biology, military tactics, geography, botany etc
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Alexander's education ended at 16, Phillip called Alexander back to Pella to put into practice the qualities needed to rule. Made Alexander regent of Macedon while campaigning against the Illyrians. As regent he put down an uprising in the north and founded a city in the contested area (Alexandropolis)
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The Thebans and Athenians fought a battle against Macedon at Chaeronea. At 18, Alexander led the Companion Cavalry. Decisive battle as it ended most effective Greek resistance to Macedonian control. The Sacred Band of Thebes was destroyed in the battle, thought to be invincible throughout Ancient Greece - significant for Philip. After the victory, Philip created the League of Corinth, uniting most Greek states under Macedonian leadership.
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King Phillip II is assassinated and led to Alexander becoming King of Macedon
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During the wedding of his daughter Cleopatra (from Olympias) to the King of Epirus (Alexander, brother of Olympias) in Aegae. Escorted by his son and son-in-law (Alexander x2), bodyguards at a distance. Philip's ex-lover and bodyguard (Pausanius) rushed up and stabbed him in the chest.
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Philip died, Thebans rebelled, believing Macedonians wouldn't have a leader strong enough to keep the kingdom together. Alexander was campaigning in the north, Illyria and the Balkans, fighting tribes that threatened Macedonian control. Thebans believed Alexander was dead = collapse of Macedonian control. Alexander marched back quickly, stopped for 3 days and offered amnesty, Theban leaders refused, believing he was dead + Persian alliance. Thebes overwhelmed and massacred, 6000 Thebans dead
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Its ruler Orontopates with the help of Memnon (+ 2000 mercenaries). Alexander began filling the moat, after a few days of bitter fighting, Alexander broke through the walls - Memnon fled and Orontopates escaped. Alexander decided it was best to retreat, left 3000 mercenaries and 200 calvary who defeated Orontopates a year later.
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After leaving Pella in the spring, he crosses the Hellspont into Asia, and the first place Alexander visited was Troy. He did not take all his troops, left them with Parmenio who continued crossing, unchallenged by Persia. After completing cermonies at Troy, Alexander marched north to join the army at Arisbe.
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Alexander fought his first major battle against the Persians at the Granicus River in Asia Minor. Despite the difficult river crossing and strong Persian cavalry, Alexander led a successful attack that defeated the Persian satraps and killed many Greek mercenaries fighting for Persia. The victory secured western Asia Minor and strengthened Alexander’s reputation as a commander. Greek cities in Asia saw him as a liberator while Greece itself wared against opposing him
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Had initially decided to surrender, but realised Persian fleets were near by so they decided to fight. However the Athenian fleet reached them first and blocked the entrance to the harbour, laying siege on the city (preventing all help from coming in). The city soon fell. Around 300 mercenaries escaped to a near by island, prepared to fight to death but Alexander pardoned them and employed them
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Alexander moved forward and charged with the Companions across the Pinarus river. They were followed by the first two phalanx battalions. The remaining battalions were unable to force their way across, leaving a gap in the Macedonian line in which Darius' mercenaries poured through. Fierce battle developed, Darius fled before the onslaught. The Persian cavalry was having success but saw the mercenaries be cut down + Darius fleeing so they also turned away. Persian camp was captured.
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Tyrians sent envoys welcoming Alexander. Wishing to test their loyalty, Alexander asked to sacrifice to Herakles on the island, however he was told that only their King could sacrifice on the island. Alexander sent the envoys away and prepared for a siege. Having overwhelming superiority at sea (having a mole with multiple towers), Alexander was able to surround the island, attacking several key points from war boats + the mole.
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The Persians had been very disliked by the Egyptians since the conquering King Cambyses had taken the country. After he invaded, he was shown the Apis calf. The young bull was a potent symbol of the Egyptian gods on earth. Cambyses had the calf slaughtered, roasted and eaten. Alexander was welcomed and declared Pharaoh after he paid homage to the Apis bull.
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Alexander advanced to the right with the Companion Cavalry, drawing the Persian cavalry away, creating a gap in the Persian line. Persian scythed chariots were neutralised by the Macedonians before Alexander led a wedge-shaped charge through the opening toward Darius. The Macedonian phalanx faced heavy pressure, and Persian forces briefly broke through toward the camp. Seeing Alexander approaching and parts of his army collapsing, Darius fled. The Persian army lost cohesion and retreated.
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Agis III, King of Sparta attempted to challenge Macedonian control in Greece while Alexander was campaigning in Asia. He sought support from other Greek states and received money and ships from Persia. He began organising resistance in Peloponnese hoping to unite Greece against Macedonia. Antipater marched south, confronted the rebels at the Battle of Megalopolis. The Macedonians defeated them and Agis III was killed
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Alexander control of the Persian ceremonial capital and its vast treasury. The city was looted by Macedonian troops, securing enormous wealth for the campaign. Alexander then ordered the palace complex to be burned, possibly as revenge for the Persian destruction of Greek temples during the Greco-Persian Wars. Some sources suggest it may have been a drunken decision during a banquet, while others argue it was a deliberate political act to symbolise the end of the Achaemenid Empire.
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Alexander left Persepolis to pursue Darius. Darius flees quickly but Bessus (a Persian) arrests him. Alexander catches up to Bessus but Nabarzanes and Barsaentes stab Darius and then flee. Alexander buries Darius with the honours befitting a King (policy of fusion). Alexander tells people he is Darius' successor and later kills Nabarzanes and Barsaentes for regicide.
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Alexander initially defeated and captured Bessus, who had claimed kingship after betraying Darius, and secured key settlements in Bactria. However, Sogdiana was more challenging, local nobles led a guerrilla-style resistance against Macedonian rule. Alexander built forts and founded new cities such as Alexandria Eschate to secure control of the region. He also adopted more flexible policies, including negotiating with some local leaders and incorporating them into his administration.
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Sogdian lord Oxyartes took refuge in his hilltop fortress, sheer on all sides and well provisioned with supplies in case of a lengthy siege. Alexander called for volunteers who could climb the mountains (Sogdians told him he'd need winged soldiers). 300 set out, 30 died, but by morning they reached the fort and the Sogdians surrendered in shock
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Hill fort (strategically good for Alexander to take - threatened communication lines). The only way to approach it was across a deep ravine. In 3 days he built a causeway (using archers and slingers to keep the enemy at bay) and once completed, he crossed and took the forts.
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Alexander crossed the Hydaspes River during the monsoon season, facing a well-prepared army led by Porus, with war elephants. Alexander used a tactic to mislead Porus then launched a surprise attack, outflanking the Indian forces and causing confusion in the battlefield. Despite strong resistance, Porus was defeated and was captured.
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Alexander continued eastward until reaching the Beas (Hyphasis) River in India. There, his troops mutinied and refused to march further into the Indian subcontinent. The Macedonian army was exhausted after years of campaigning, weakened by heavy rain, difficult conditions, and continuous fighting, and many soldiers feared reports of even larger Indian armies and more war elephants beyond the river. Alexander attempted to persuade his men to continue, but the army remained unwilling.
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After Beas, Alexander withdrew but continued down the Indus Valley, using force to secure control of remaining tribes to prevent rebellion behind his retreating army. He stormed several towns before attacking a fortified citadel. During the siege, Alexander climbed a scalding ladder first to push his troops forward, many soldiers followed him onto the same ladder, causing it to collapse. He was left isolated inside the walls and struck in the lung by an arrow.
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After leaving India, Alexander led his army through the desert, where extreme heat, water shortages, and lack of supplies caused severe losses. Forced to march inland away from the coast, the army struggled through sand, failed water sources, and destroyed wagons as conditions worsened. Many animals and camp followers died. Despite the suffering, Alexander shared hardships with his men, marched on foot, and even poured out water offered to him to show he would not take more than his soldiers.
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At Susa, Alexander organised a mass wedding ceremony as part of his policy of fusing Macedonians and Persians into a single ruling elite. Over five days, he held a lavish celebration in his enormous royal tent, where Alexander, Hephaestion, and around 90 leading Macedonian and Greek officers married noble Persian and Median women in traditional Persian style, with Alexander marrying Barsine, daughter of Darius.
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Soon after his return to the west, Alexander went to the Median capital Ecbatana from Opis to avoid the intense summer heat and have a rest. There, he suffered great personal loss when his closest friend Hephaestion, whom he had made his second in command, died aged 32 of excessive drinking.
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Macedonian soldiers became angry over Alexander’s adoption of Persian customs and policy of fusion between Macedonians and Persians. Tensions worsened when Alexander incorporated Persian troops into the army and dismissed older Macedonian veterans, who felt they were being replaced and sidelined. The army mutinied, openly protesting against Alexander. In response, Alexander reacted harshly at first, executing some ringleaders, but later reconciled with his troops through speeches and rewards.
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At the age of 32 after a night of heavy drinking Alexander became seriously ill. He developed a fever lasting 2 weeks. He was able to plan his next campaign but on the 7th of June he became more ill.
His troops broke into the palace as his conditioned worsened. He died on the 10th June. As he lay dying he passed his ring to Perdiccas (Diodorus/Curtius) and when asked who should replace him, he replied to ‘the strongest’ and died.
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