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The first enslaved Africans in Jamestown came from Portuguese-controlled Angola, where European influence had existed since 1571. Many were Atlantic Creoles, people of mixed African and European descent who were familiar with Western culture. Their blended heritage often led to cultural conflicts with both African and European communities (Spring, pg. 55).
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The growth of southern plantations increased demand for enslaved Africans, leading traders to source them from interior states rather than ports. These Africans were largely unfamiliar with European culture, so upon arrival, they often resisted Western practices and maintained African traditions, including festivals celebrating their heritage (Spring, pg. 57).
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Quakers long advocated ending slavery, disowning members involved in the trade by the 1750s, and abolishing it within their communities in the 1770s. In 1775, they formed the Pennsylvania Society for the Abolition of Slavery, the first abolitionist group, inspiring others; by 1788, at least thirteen anti-slavery organizations existed (Historical Society of Pennsylvania, n.d.).
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Prince Hall, a free Black man in Boston, petitioned the Massachusetts General Court for seven African Americans, arguing slavery violated natural rights (Prince Hall, 1777). Arriving in 1765, he worked, became a minister, preached against slavery, founded the first African Masonic Lodge, and advocated for education and abolition alongside other free Black men and women.
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In 1777, Vermont became the first in the Western Hemisphere to outlaw slavery. In 1778, Pennsylvania sought to stop importing slaves, leading to the 1780 Gradual Abolition Act: those born before March 1 remained enslaved; those born after became indentured until age 28. Pennsylvania’s law later guided northern states’ gradual abolition (Spring, p. 58).
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The Virginia Manumission Act allowed individuals to manumit, or free, enslaved people without government permission. As a result, thousands of enslaved Africans gained their freedom, creating one of the earliest large free Black populations in the United States. The act strengthened early Black educational and community-building efforts.
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Quock Walker, promised freedom by his enslaver, escaped in 1781 when it wasn’t honored. Captured and beaten by Nathaniel Jennison, Walker sued; a jury ruled him legally free. In 1783’s Commonwealth v. Jennison, the judge declared slavery violated Massachusetts’ 1780 Constitution. Jennison was guilty, making slavery unenforceable, though not formally abolished.
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Between 1785–1789, free Black communities in northern cities like Philadelphia, New York, and Boston formed structured groups supporting education, literacy, and newly freed people. In 1787, Richard Allen and Absalom Jones founded the Free African Society in Philadelphia, providing financial, moral, and religious aid. Informal Black schools also arose, laying the groundwork for 1800s Black-led schools, churches, and abolition movements.